Effectiveness Of Fundamental Rights Research Articles

The Past, Present and Future of EU Copyright Flexibilities

Building on a wealth of studies on the strengths and pitfalls of EU harmonisation in the field of copyright exceptions and limitations, and on the state of the art of the copyright balance across the Union, the H2020 project reCreating Europe performed an unprecedented comparative mapping of EU and national legislative acts and case law regulating copyright “flexibilities” (exceptions and limitations; definition of protectable subject-matter; terms of protection; exhaustion; judicial doctrines such as fair balance and the horizontal effects of fundamental rights on copyright law; statutory licensing schemes; paying public domain et al.). On this basis, it produced national and comparative reports, grouped into 12 homogeneous categories of permitted uses. The study aimed at (a) assessing the degree of harmonisation across the EU and the impact of their territoriality and optional nature on the proper functioning of the system; (b) mapping which “uses” and “purposes” are balanced against copyright and with what results, both in the EU and in each Member State; and (c) identifying the regulatory gaps and enablers impacting on the proper functioning of copyright flexibilities across the Union. This article will provide an overview of the background, methodology (Section 2) and main results of the research, sketching the past and present of EU copyright flexibilities (Section 3). On this basis, it will provide general and specific recommendations for future reforms (Section 4).

Unravelling horizontal direct effect in EU law: the case of the fundamental right to paid annual leave between ‘myth’ and ‘practice’

Abstract It is rather trendy to talk about the ‘horizontal effect’ of fundamental rights in a society where the dividing line between public and private power is increasingly blurred. However, as soon as one tries to define the exact meaning of horizontal effect and its conditions, several issues swiftly arise. This article explores the past, the present, and the future of the horizontal direct effect in the European Union (EU) legal order, by focusing on the application of this doctrine to the fundamental labour rights today protected in the Charter of fundamental rights. Most notably, with the approaching of the fifth birthday of Bauer and Max-Planck, by looking at the case of the fundamental right to paid annual leave under Article 31(2) of the Charter, this article aims at unravelling the actual meaning of the conditions for the horizontal direct effect of the EU fundamental rights and the actual perimeter of this direct effect. Although the effectiveness of minimum labour rights mandatorily enhanced by this case law should be welcomed, it is argued that the doctrine of the horizontal direct effect of EU fundamental rights seems still stuck between being a proper constitutional doctrine and a mere type of direct effect. It is also claimed, first, that horizontal direct effect is not a unitary phenomenon in EU law. In spite of the continuity in the ECJ’s technical reasoning, there is indeed a striking contrast between the language of ‘perfect equalisation’ of the Charter to the treaties and its actual approach to the assessment of the horizontal direct effect of fundamental (labour) rights. The ECJ’s case law analysis on the fundamental right to paid annual leave will prove this point. Secondly, it is suggested that horizontal direct effect can be defined as a sui generis, on-call, subsidiary, corollary, and ‘amputee’ doctrine, and we will offer some considerations on each of these features by reference to the Court’s practice under investigation. Thirdly, we suggest that the horizontal direct effect of fundamental (labour) rights relies more on the history and trajectory of the EU regulation of that specific right in the EU legal order rather than on the wording of the Charter’s provision or other technicalities.

The Lazy Legislature: Incorporating and Horizontalising the Charter of Fundamental Rights through Secondary Union Law

Constitutionalising private law – Horizontal effect of fundamental rights –New legislative techniques in the EU in platform governance – References to the Charter of Fundamental Rights in secondary union law – Article 14(4) of the Digital Services Act – Article 5(1) subparagraph 2 of the Terrorist Content Online Regulation – Compatibility of secondary union law references to the Charter with primary union law – Interpretative methodology of secondary union law references

Using Terms and Conditions to apply Fundamental Rights to Content Moderation

AbstractLarge online platforms provide an unprecedented means for exercising freedom of expression online and wield enormous power over public participation in the online democratic space. However, it is increasingly clear that their systems, where (automated) content moderation decisions are taken based on a platformʼs terms and conditions (T&Cs), are fundamentally broken. Content moderation systems have been said to undermine freedom of expression, especially where important public interest speech ends up suppressed, such as speech by minority and marginalized groups. Indeed, these content moderation systems have been criticized for their overly vague rules of operation, inconsistent enforcement, and an overdependence on automation. Therefore, in order to better protect freedom of expression online, international human rights bodies and civil society organizations have argued that platforms “should incorporate directly” principles of fundamental rights law into their T&Cs. Under EU law, and apart from a rule in the Terrorist Content Regulation, platforms had until recently no explicit obligation to incorporate fundamental rights into their T&Cs. However, an important provision in the Digital Services Act (DSA) will change this. Crucially, Article 14 DSA lays down new rules on how platforms can enforce their T&Cs, including that platforms must have “due regard” to the “fundamental rights” of users under the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights. In this article, we critically examine the topic of enforceability of fundamental rights via T&Cs through the prism of Article 14 DSA. We ask whether this provision requires platforms to apply EU fundamental rights law and to what extent this may curb the power of Big Tech over online speech. We conclude that Article 14 will make it possible, in principle, to establish the indirect horizontal effect of fundamental rights in the relationship between online platforms and their users. But in order for the application and enforcement of T&Cs to take due regard of fundamental rights, Article 14 must be operationalized within the framework of the international and European fundamental rights standards. If this is possible Article 14 may fulfil its revolutionary potential.

HYA and Others: Reshaping participation at criminal trials in Europe

The recent decision of the Court of Justice of the European Union in HYA and Others has a significant impact on the use of untested witness statements in criminal proceedings. The case concerned the right to examine witnesses, which is protected under 6(3)(d) of the European Convention on Human Rights. The CJEU established a three-step test to determine whether the use of untested evidence violates the right to a fair trial and ruled out the use of ‘sole or decisive’ untested evidence in criminal proceedings. The Court also held that the right to examine witnesses is a fundamental right in criminal proceedings and falls within the scope of Article 8(1) of Directive 2016/343. The HYA and Others judgment sets a higher standard than that guaranteed by the ECtHR, preventing the use of sole or decisive witnesses in reaching a final conviction decision. Finally, the judgment extends the scope of defence rights in EU law and enhances the effectiveness of fundamental rights in criminal proceedings.

Things Will Never be the Same Again: How the Coronavirus Pandemic is Changing the Understanding of Fundamental Rights in Germany

Abstract In the coronavirus pandemic, the challenges for the doctrine of fundamental rights are significantly different from comparable issues in all previous crises in terms of their intensity, dynamics and the uncertainty of the risk. Scrutiny of the proportionality of the measures against the COVID-19 virus caused serious difficulties, and these difficulties could barely be overcome in the most critical phases during the first and second wave of infections. Furthermore, the combination of intensity, dynamics and uncertainties has forced federal and state legislators to make seemingly arbitrary differences in many cases. Therefore, in the jurisprudence of the administrative courts on the restrictions of fundamental rights during the coronavirus pandemic, there has been a shift in the standard of justification from aspects of freedom to aspects of equality. The pandemic has also led to the questioning of central categories of state liability law that are closely related to fundamental rights. Last but not least, the pandemic raised the question of the essence of fundamental rights. On the whole, the pandemic has made the limits of the efficiency of fundamental rights visible. The higher the expectations of optimization requirements and new dimensions of fundamental rights protection under normal conditions, the greater the disappointments will be about the effectiveness of fundamental rights in the case of an emergency such as the coronavirus pandemic. The luxury of fundamental rights afforded under normal conditions becomes a problem in an emergency situation. This carries the risk of obscuring the essence of fundamental rights protection.

Corrigendum to: The Intergenerational Effect of Fundamental Rights: A Contribution of the German Federal Constitutional Court to Climate Protection

Corrigendum to: The Intergenerational Effect of Fundamental Rights: A Contribution of the German Federal Constitutional Court to Climate Protection

Privacy at work

Today, there is a widespread recognition of the horizontal effect of fundamental rights. The labourcontract represented everywhere, in democratic systems, the natural framework for the development of such an effectiveness of constitutional precepts and values, with the need of answering to the question of whether-and to what extent–the interests that are in the basis of the employer's power require and justify in casuthe limitation of the employee ́s freedom.The Portuguese Labour Code, in articles 14 and following, expressly recognizes certain fundamental rights of the human being in the workplace,including the privacy. The employee has, in fact, the right to expect a certain degree of respect for his privacy in the workplace, which is where he develops an important part of his relations with others. This right shall, however, be balanced with other rights and legitimate interests of the employer, in particular the rights to effectively manage his enterprise and specially to protect himself from liability or damage caused by employee ́s actions.The case law –namely that of the Supreme Court of Justice -has influenced the evolution of the Labour Law, contributing to the interpretation of the lawand the resolution of some controversial employment issues, e.g. in matters related to fundamental rights. In the final part of this article we will seek toprovide a brief overview of some innovative case law issued by the Social Chamber of the Portuguese Supreme Court, particularly after entering into force the Portuguese Labour Code in 2003.

The Intergenerational Effect of Fundamental Rights: A Contribution of the German Federal Constitutional Court to Climate Protection

Abstract By a recent judgment, the German Federal Constitutional Court enhanced the concept of fundamental rights to climate protection in three dimensions: their number, content and temporal reach. While previously fundamental rights to health, occupation and property have been trialled in domestic climate litigation, the Court here propounds almost all fundamental rights to being inflicted insofar as their enjoyment hinges upon the availability of fossil energy and thus the emission of greenhouse gases. Developing an intertemporal dimension of those rights, the Court finds an imbalance of permissible greenhouse gas emissions in that most of the emission budget available within a temperature increase of well below 2°C will be spent by 2030, leaving only a minimum use of fossil fuels for subsequent years and generations. This analysis summarises the Court’s legal reasoning, positioning it in the broader spectrum of fundamental rights doctrine, and reflects on the contribution of the case to the growing number of transnational climate jurisprudence.

Il ruolo degli enti locali per lo sviluppo del territorio, nell’era della “Ripresa” e della “Resilienza”: verso nuovi assetti istituzionali?

The contribution aims to analyze the systematic reference framework regarding local autonomies and administrative organization, also in the light of the evidence that European and national institutions have had to face following the outcome of the health emergency caused by the Covid[1]19 Pandemic. research focuses mainly on the issues of administrative decentralization, “differentiated regionalism” and the principle of subsidiarity. The indications provided by the European Union for the implementation of the Recovery Plan seem to induce States to promote interventions, with a view to the digital and environmental transition, mainly aimed at social cohesion and raising the level of well-being of citizens, also through the (qualitative and quantitative) strengthening of personal services. In this perspective, therefore, the investigation referring to differentiated autonomy assumes particular relevance, especially in consideration of the PA PERSONA E AMMINISTRAZIONE Ricerche Giuridiche sull’Amministrazione e l’Economia 140 fact that it is necessary to ensure a homogeneous level of effectiveness of fundamental rights throughout the national territory. The reflection brought about by the contribution focuses, specifically, on the role of local authorities, and municipalities in particular, whose administrative capacity is a fundamental prerequisite for the implementation of a virtuous institutional model

Fundamental Rights, Contract Law and Transactional Justice

Abstract This article critically engages with Peter Benson’s theory of contract law. It explores whether his juridical conception of contract as a transfer of rights, which is governed by the contract law’s internal principles of transactional justice, can be reconciled with fundamental rights. The article argues that the conventional distinction between the direct and indirect horizontal effect of fundamental rights is problematic because it does not make it unequivocal which body of law – fundamental rights or contract law – substantially governs the relations between contracting parties and determines the outcome of disputes between them. The answer to this fundamental question, however, is crucial for the stability of Benson’s theory of contract law. Drawing on the European experience, the article shows that the relationship between fundamental rights and contract law can take the form of the subordination of contract law to fundamental rights or the complementarity between the two. While the latter is compatible with Benson’s theory, the former is in tension with it. For the sake of conceptual clarity, therefore, it is useful to distinguish between three forms of the horizontal effect of fundamental rights in contract law – direct horizontal effect, strong indirect horizontal effect, and weak indirect horizontal effect.

Aspectos tecnológicos da “tiny house” e sua regulamentação no Brasil frente à sustentabilidade socioambiental

O artigo analisa os aspectos conceituais, tecnológicos e sociais da implementação da tiny house no Brasil. Parte-se da ideia segundo a qual a casa minúscula é uma inovação que pode ser colocada à disposição como opção sustentável de habitação nos municípios brasileiros. Pretende-se ressaltar as complexidades e interdependências da habitação em tiny house a partir da análise da legislação vigente. Trata-se de pesquisa bibliográfica relevante frente à efetividade dos direitos fundamentais consubstanciados no direito à moradia e ao meio ambiente ecologicamente equilibrado. Ademais, o estudo leva em consideração o princípio da solidariedade e do desenvolvimento sustentável como paradigma para os processos de inovação e tecnologia. O resultado obtido aponta que a tiny house compreendida como habitação sustentável é um importante instrumento para valorização do direito à propriedade, mediante o desafio da necessidade de adequação das normas do ordenamento jurídico brasileiro.

A era dos deveres: a necessidade de um estatuto da pessoa humana para a eficácia social dos direitos fundamentais

A eficácia dos direitos fundamentais passa, atualmente, por uma crise: os esforços pelo reconhecimento desses direitos não têm sido acompanhados pela sua real e efetiva concretização. O resultado é um grande número de direitos reconhecidos para os membros de uma sociedade que até obtém êxito ao reivindicá-los, mas não em deles usufruir de maneira adequada. A proposta deste trabalho é, a partir do uso do método dialógico, demonstrar como o cumprimento de deveres fundamentais pode contribuir para a cada vez maior concretização dos direitos. Para demonstrar essa tese, desenvolve-se, em primeiro lugar, a defesa sobre a necessidade de um estatuto da pessoa humana, baseado não apenas em seus direitos, mas também e principalmente, em seus deveres; em segundo lugar, agrega-se à ideia de um estatuto uma proposta de como operacionalizar a relação entre o cumprimento de deveres e a concretização de direitos de maneira cíclica. A conclusão alcançada com essa proposta é a de que o resgate da categoria dos deveres pode contribuir para o fortalecimento dos direitos para todos, superada a visão estritamente individual.

SILÊNCIO CONSTITUCIONAL

O presente trabalho tem como objeto de estudo o Silêncio Constitucional. No curso da pesquisa verificou-se que a delimitação do Silêncio Constitucional como instituto da Hermenêutica Constitucional é pressuposto da racionalidade jurídica das decisões judiciais de efetivação dos Direitos Fundamentais. Para que o Silêncio Constitucional seja uma das vias de desenvolvimento do Estado Democrático de Direito, este trabalho propõe-se ao estudo de sua categorização pela Teoria do Silêncio Eloquente na doutrina nacional e na Jurisprudência do Supremo Tribunal Federal (STF), em especial para responder se existe adequação da referida teoria para interpretação da Constituição Federal de 1988. A Pesquisa foi executada sob o enfoque da dogmática jurídica, portanto, com utilização preponderante do método dedutivo. Foi utilizado o método indutivo na parte do trabalho em que foi necessária a análise de casos concretos da Jurisprudência do STF. As conclusões centrais do trabalho são o risco ao Estado Democrático de Direito diante da ausência de uniformidade metodológica e de categorias da hermenêutica na interpretação do Silêncio Constitucional e a insegurança jurídica causada pela falta de controle da racionalidade das decisões judicial por meio de critérios objetivos. Diante do paradigma construído a partir da Constituição Federal de 1988, o trabalho concluiu, portanto, pela inadequação da Teoria do Silêncio Eloquente, seja tal como sistematizada pela doutrina nacional, seja tal como aplicada pelo Supremo Tribunal Federal.

The Judgment in Bauer and the Effect of the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights in Horizontal Situations

The note discusses the judgment of the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) in Bauer, a preliminary reference concerning the question of the effect of the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights in horizontal situations. The note examines whether the Bauer judgment unequivocally transformed the EU Charter into an independent source of private parties’ duties, and how it can be determined which Charter provisions could impose specific duties on private parties. The note evaluates the reasoning of the CJEU and locates the Bauer judgment within the growing strand of EU case law concerning the question of horizontal effect of fundamental rights and the role of the Charter of Fundamental Rights in regulating private law situations.

LA DOBLE FACETA DE LA LIBERTAD DE TRABAJO Y SU PROTECCIÓN EN LA CONSTITUCIÓN CHILENA

Tras el advenimiento del derecho del trabajo, en el siglo XX el nuevo constitucionalismo permite una e cacia plena de los derechos fundamentales en la empresa. En dicho contexto, mediante una misma disposición como es el artículo 19 número 16, se puede gra car el cruce en nuestra Constitución Política de los derechos fundamentales de tra- bajadores y empleadores.

União homoafetiva e dignidade humana no serviço público federal: leading case no Tribunal Regional do Trabalho da 19ª Região

O artigo analisa o tratamento jurídico dirigido aos servidores públicos homossexuais no Brasil, no recorte entre o início do novo milênio e a decisão emblemática de novembro de 2011, no Supremo Tribunal Federal, oriunda de processo que discutiu a união civil entre pessoas homossexuais e sua relação com o Estado do Rio de Janeiro como empregador. A pesquisa foi feita no âmbito do Poder Judiciário federal enquanto empregador/administrador público, e se vale, como estudo de caso, da análise documental do processo 000900-76.5.19.2008.0000, que tramitou perante o Tribunal Regional do Trabalho da 19ª Região, no qual se discutiu, pela primeira vez, acerca da união homoafetiva de servidor do judiciário federal e a equiparação à união heteroafetiva para fins de gozo dos benefícios relativos a plano de saúde e previdenciários. A pesquisa procurou revelar como os conceitos de dignidade da pessoa humana, igualdade e não-discriminação e da máxima da efetividade dos direitos fundamentais eram vistos pela Administração Pública no trato com seus administrados-servidores de orientação homossexual.

THE RIGHT TO BE FORGOTTEN IN THE PRACTICE OF THE CONSTITUTIONAL JUSTICE BODIES OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION AND THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

The development of digital technologies affects the legal status of an individual. The task of constitutional justice is the constitutional interpretation of new legal phenomena such as the right to be forgotten. This article aims to analyze the right to be forgotten in the decisions of the Russian Constitutional Court and German Constitutional Court in a comparative aspect. The research methodology is primarily a dialectical method. This method helps the author to identify the content of the right to be forgotten, as well as to determine its role in relation to other constitutionally significant values. The comparative legal method is of particular importance for achieving the objectives of the research and helps to highlight the general and specific in the approaches of the courts to the concept of this right. This approach distinguishes the novelty of this research in comparison with other papers. The use of the dialectical and comparative legal research methods allows drawing the following conclusions. The distinctive feature of the right to be forgotten is its dualistic nature. On the one hand, this is a civil right associated with the right to privacy; on the other, it acts as a way to protect other constitutional rights (for example, the dignity of the individual). This right is not absolute. Some information may be of public interest. To resolve the issue of the prevailing constitutionally significant value in a particular case, the Russian Constitutional Court suggests using the method of finding a balance. The Federal Constitutional Court of Germany emphasized that the right to free personal development and dignity sometimes prevails over freedom of information, especially considering the time factor in the case, as well as the degree of harm caused to a person by links to information posted on the Internet. The German Federal Constitutional Court, characterizing the legal relationship regarding the exercise of the right to be forgotten, highlights that this is a relationship between private subjects with fundamental rights, and refers to the concept of the horizontal effect of fundamental rights (“mittelbare Drittwirkung”) developed in German constitutional law. This article concludes that the decisions of the Russian Constitutional Court and the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany on the right to be forgotten are the guidelines for other courts, as well as the legislator for further improving legal regulation. Taking into account the development of information technologies, the author believes that the constitutional courts will more than once turn to the digital aspects of the legal status of an individual and, in particular, the concept of the right to be forgotten.

Do contrato liberal ao contrato existencial: a mudança de paradigmas na hermenêutica contratual

O presente trabalho visa demonstrar a possibilidade de uma distinção contratual que consiga garantir melhor tutela à vida humana, afastando esse instituto jurídico da mera análise patrimonialista clássica e aproximando-o da luz das normas fundamentais que ilumina todo o sistema jurídico contemporâneo, por meio da consideração do contrato como “existencial”. Para tanto, foi feita a análise das mudanças paradigmáticas na hermenêutica contratual, passando inicialmente do paradigma liberal para, finalmente, sob a ótica da eficácia expansiva dos direitos fundamentais, apresentar os fundamentos que apoiam o contrato existencial.

DEMOCRACIA, GLOBALIZAÇÃO E NORMATIVIDADE JURÍDICA: A RELATIVIZAÇÃO DA SOBERANIA E A EFICÁCIA DOS DIREITOS FUNDAMENTAIS

A democracia como forma de sociedade não é uma inovação recente da humanidade. A problemática atual reside no fato de que, com o fenômeno da globalização do mundo e os impactos das novas tecnologias, verifica-se uma verdadeira onipresença do enfraquecimento dos regimes democráticos no cenário contemporâneo. Frente ao massivo desenvolvimento tecnocientífico global, busca-se compreender como a eficácia horizontal dos direitos fundamentais pode contribuir com as democracias contemporâneas, as quais passam a ser evidenciadas em baixa escala no jogo político. Notadamente, o sistema financeiro pauta a razão, e a noção de busca pela promoção dos direitos fundamentais se confunde com a busca dos Estados por maior poder econômico. Assim, o presente estudo objetiva analisar, por meio do emprego do método hipotético-dedutivo e da técnica de pesquisa bibliográfica, o paradigma atual para a efetivação de um ideal de democracia que garanta a proteção dos direitos fundamentais diante dos céleres avanços tecnocientíficos na sociedade globalizada.