Digital Relief Model Research Articles

The possible use of pilotless aircrafts for operative monitoring of soil productivity

As seen from a comprehensive review of literature sources, at the current stage of technological development and simplicity the pilotless aircrafts should be considered as a reliable tool for operative monitoring of soils and crops on fields and areas of small farms. The possibilities to use the imagery obtained by pilotless aircrafts are predetermined by a type of survey apparatus to a considerable extent. At present, the miniature survey apparatus permits to obtain images, the spectral resolution of which can be compatible with those obtained by satellites. Today, the images of pilotless aircrafts are used to give a visual assessment of any object to be surveyed. There are publications devoted to the computer analysis of images including those used for agricultural purposes. The experience is becoming common to use the imagery obtained by pilotless aircrafts and their computer analysis for constructing digital models of the field relief, monitoring over the soil erodibility and operative valuation of the agricultural crops state. Being compared with satellite imagery, the data of pilotless aircrafts have a number of advantages in aerial surveying. The major limits to use data obtained by pilotless aircrafts consist in insufficient miniaturization of the surveying apparatus and the fact that the monitoring cannot be organized to control over large areas.

A preparing Technique in due to Distinguish the Topography Layers on the Base of Digital Relief Models and Dendrofl ora’s Character as exemplifi ed to Western Prebaikal Region

It has been considering a preparing technique in due to distinguish the mountain topography layers in regions of high geodynamic activity of the Earth’s crust on the base of analysis of the digital relief models and on the set (composition) of characteristic dendrofl ora species as exemplified to Western Prebaikal Region (model polygon in Preolkhon Region). It is used the original technique of constructing digital relief models, basing on the principles of the method of relief plastic. The digital relief model can accurately provide the spatial boundaries of topography layers. With the above technique, four topography layers of relief of Preolkhon Region (West Prebaikal Region) have been determined: the watershed, slope, valley and aquatic. The character of dendroflora allows supplying the genetic connection layers. It is propose to divide some heterogeneous on the stretching topography layers on the elongated segments. It was established that typical set (composition) of dendroflora species (trees, bush, and small bush) is characteristic for each specific topography layer and its segment in study area of Preolkhon Region. This composition has been used for additional indication of topography layers subsequently. The proposed technique is more precise in comparison with traditional techniques in due to distinguish the topography layers.

Analysis of Morphometric Characteristics of Bottom Relief of Lake Ladoga on the Basis of the Digital Model

One of the important issues in limnology is the quantitative description of bottom relief of large lakes and the identifi cation of relationships between geomorphological properties and hydrological features of lake depression. On the basis of the advanced digital model of Lake Ladoga bottom relief the statistical characteristics of depth and slope of the lake and its limnetic zones are determined. The description of the limnetic zones relief and features of sedimentation is given. Characteristic horizontal scales are determined with use of two-dimensional spatial autocorrelation functions of depths and slopes.

FORECASTS OF LANDSCAPE DYNAMICS OF MONGUN-TAIGA MASSIF (SOUTH-EAST TYVA) FOR PREDETERMINED SCENARIOUS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES

Sensibility of geosystems to external influence is conside-red in the case of Mongun-Taiga massif. Information about the current state of geosystems of the massif, their ecological climatic niches and spatial distribution of climatic characte-ristics is based on multiyear in situ instrumental observations of the authors. Modeling of landscape structure transformation influenced by climate change in the mountainous area is done through digital models of relief and fields of climatic characteristics. Changes of geosystems of glacio-nival zone are evaluated through the mathematical model, created by authors. Revealed ecoclimatic niches of geasystems (areas of their optimum) are used for the prediction of the borders shift, the most probable continuous geosystem states for specific combination of climatic characteristic values and geosystems vicinity are taken into account. Two scenarios are considered for 2047-2050. The first one is based on extrapolation of current trends of meteo data of Mugur Aksy meteorological station , warming on the background of threduction of precipitation is expected. In the second forecast scenario based on RCP8.5 model warming and moistering are expected. Forecasts of transformation of landscape structure of the massif obtained give the opportunity to conclude that high mountain geosystems, mostly snow-ice formations, and also periglacial zone landscapes are the most changeable. Most area changes by the middle of the XXI century are predicted for the scenario of warming on the background of aridization.

Present-day changes of mountain glaciers on the southern slope of the Dzhungarian Alatau range

Glacierization of southern slope of the Dzhungarian (Zhetysu) Alatau range was estimated by means of data obtained by operational satellite Landsat 7 surveys on August 19 and September 2011 (sensors ETM+) with the use of digital relief models (ASTER GDEM). Analysis of these materials by means of computer programs ENVI, ERDAS Imagine, MapInfo, and ArcGIS made it possible to obtain a spatial information of glacier systems of the territory under investigation and to define morphological characteristics of glaciers, present-day moraine complexes, glacier lakes as well as other elements of glacial monitoring at the survey moments. To estimate changes of the glacierization the data from previous Inventories of this glacier system as of 1956 and 1972 (P.A. Cherkasov), 1990 and 2000 (authors of this article) were used. 30 glaciers being now located on the Chine territory but included into the Inventories of 1956 and 1972 (because the boundaries were changed after 1990) were included into new Inventory. As of 2011, 500 glaciers with total area of their open parts 120.12 km 2 were registered in Southern Dzhungaria. 124 glaciers (57% of total number) cover area less 0.1 km 2 each, and their total area is equal to 9.01 km 2 (8% of total area of the glacierization).Total area of the moraines reached 105.6 km 2 . Volume of open ice calculated by formulas was estimated 4.6 km 3 . According to calculations, the firn line altitude of the glaciers on the southern slope was equal to 3685 m. As compared to 1956 (3645 m) this line lifted by 40 m. 190 glacier lakes with total area 6.0 km 2 were found on this territory, among them 19 lakes were classified as especially dangerous for outbursting (their total area – 2.5 km 2 ). For the last 55 years the glacierization area in the Southern Dzhungaria was reduced by 47.4% or, on the average, by 0.86% in every year. It should be noted that for the several last years, the rate of degradation decreased almost twice as compared to earlier years. The tendencies revealed were used to predict future changes of the glaciarization area on southern slope of the Dzhungarian Alatau range by the end of current century. According to this prediction, if the climatic conditions will not change, glaciers of this region will possibly be existing, however, their area will amount not more than 24% of the glacierization area of 1956.

THE PROBLEMS OF QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATION OF EROSIVE SOIL LOSSES

Purpose. Today, there are several dozen models that allow us to calculate and predict water erosion soil loss. A considerable part of them is quite weighty comprehensive study, the implementation of media-art software packages and used in different regions of the world with a practical purpose. If spatial changeability of all factors of water erosion of soil is even taken into account, there are some problems of the practical use of such models. In particular, it is the verification of models, and the spatial generalization of the got results. A question appears here, which a size of elementary area of space – raster cell – must be, from what it depends and on what it influences. Methodology. To study the impact of the raster cell size of the final result of modeling and forecasting used the GIS-realized spatial model implemented flush-accumulation of soil that was developed at the Department of Physical Geography and Nature Use of Odessa Mechnikov National University. Spatial GIS-realized a model is approved on a few test areas of steppe and forest-steppe areas of Ukraine and Russian Federation. Finding. As a result of quantitative experiments it appeared that on the electronic maps with cell size 5 and 10 meters at the calculations of a coefficient of form of hillside catchments are expressly traced the structure of hillside rill network. Use of digital model of relief with the cell size more than 10 meters for calculations the coefficient of form of hillside catchments results in a volume, that a concentration or dispersion of temporal rills is not almost traced. It is got, that the spatial differentiation of soil washing off is identified at the cell size to 25 meters, at the increase of cell size the spatial distributing is smoothed out, and the variation of values of washing off for areas diminishes considerably. The nearest to the actual soil washing off from of experimental area Ploska (0.271 t/ha/year) is a average value at the cell size 10 meters – 0.233 t/ha/year (a difference makes -13.6 %). Results. The research of influence of raster cell size on the results of calculations of norm of the thundershower soil washing off with the use of spatial GIS-realized models showed that raster cell, at the first, had a considerable influence on end-point – distributing and size of soil washing off, at the second, in dependence there is authentication of structure of the hillside flowing down on the cell size, at the third, for small hillside area with the purpose of optimization of the land use expediently to use the cell size not more than 10 meters.

Распределение теоретического (валового) гидроэнергетического потенциала малых рек Забайкальского края

Hydro power potential of Transbaikal Kray small rivers has been considered as a part of the territory water resources that can be used for energy production. It has been shown that Transbaikal Kray territory is characterized by the well-developed river network, more than 98 % of it relate to the small river class. Use of the rivers’ hydro-power resources is hampered due to the absence of their hydro-power potential. This is the first topical article devoted to assessment of theoretical (gross) potential of the Transbaikal Kray small hydro-power industry. A map of runoff module distribution on the Transbaikal Kray territory and data on elevations obtained with Shuttle Radar Topography Mission digital relief model have been used in this study. The “linear accounting” method has been applied to the rivers theoretical hydro-power potential calculation, a map of the Transbaikal Kray small rivers hydro-power theoretical potential distribution has been plotted in accordance with the obtained results. River ranges located in the Stanovoy upland, the adjoining Northern part of the Transbaikalian middle mountains, and the Khentey-Daur upland possess the highest theoretical capacity. The lowest values are typical for South-East regions of the Kray.

Method of automated construction of a digital relief model

Method of automated construction of a digital relief model

The validity of cross-validation usage in generating digital relief model of an anthropogenically transformed area

Abstract Digital relief models deliver a valuable information about the morphology of a particular area. They are useful in structural geomorphology analysis. However, their correct generation requires knowledge of geostatistic methods, including cross-validation. This article presents the importance of cross-validation, using the example of the Grodziec area (Silesian Upland, southern Poland). The choice of the test area was determined by its geomorphology – high altitude differences (140 meters maximum) and the co-occurence of landforms of different rank, genesis and size. This area includes some towering hills – monadnocks, which are Middle-Triassic cuesta remainders. These forms clearly dominate in the surrounding area incised by river valleys. Besides the large forms sculptured by erosion and denudation processes, there are also anthropogenic landforms – stone pits – of much smaller size. We asked the question whether and to what extent they will be “visible” on digital relief models depending on the variogram model setup. Two digital relief models were generated (one with a deliberately incorrect and one with the correct variogram setup) and verified using the cross-validation method. The results of this experiment show that correct digital model carries only slight overestimation of mean squared standardized error while the incorrect model shows substantial underestimation of sampling points values. The correct model is more vivid – it clearly shows most of the relief details while the DTM (digital terrain model) generated by the incorrect setup is misrepresented and blurred. This indicates that conclusions based on incorrect relief models may be subject to high errors.

Evaluation of LPM permafrost distribution in NE Asia reconstructed and downscaled from GCM simulations

A high‐resolution map of potential frozen ground distribution in NE Asia (90–150°E, 25–60°N) at the period of the Last Permafrost Maximum (LPM, c. 21 000 years ago) was dually reconstructed by means of a statistical classification using air freezing and thawing indices and a topographical downscaling using a digital relief model (ETOPO1). Background LPM climate data were derived from global climate model simulations of the Paleoclimate Model Intercomparison Project, Phase II (PMIP2). The reconstructed LPM map shows the southward shift of the southern limit of climate‐driven permafrost by 400–1500 km, with the greatest advance in the western sector (90–110°E), encompassing an area from central Siberia to most of the Altai area. The advance of environmentally conditional permafrost and seasonally frozen ground was greatest in the eastern sector (110–150°E), with an average shift of about 450 km. The descent of the lower limit of LPM alpine permafrost was in the range of 400–800 m. A comparison of the reconstructed map with published literature shows that this method, simplistically constructed yet effectively recognizing seasonality, continentality and topography, captures local features better than more elaborate methods. The sensitivity examination of a constant atmospheric lapse rate shows that altitudes of 2000–5000 m a.s.l. were most sensitive, though with only a limited effect on overall LPM distribution.

Anthropogenic transformations of the Bytom area relief in the period of 1883-1994

Abstract In this article an attempt was made to analyse the Bytom city relief changes in 1883-1994 years. It concentrates on the forms which are an effect of the mining and metallurgical activity such as subsidence depressions and dumps. Two digital relief models representing a topographic situation in year 1883 and 1994 were made by the Vertical Mapper tool in order to determine changes in the relief. The models were made by linear vectorization of contour lines, which then were processed into points. The made points were interpolated by the natural neighbour method. Maps of slopes, area profiles, contour line sketches and hypsographic curves were generated for two time periods on basis of the digital relief models. An area and values of subsidence for areas subjected to the mining activity, changes of the slopes, an average land altitude in 1883 and 1994 year were determined and an anthropogenic denudation ratio was also calculated. As the result of the research made, it has been established that the area of the subsidence is 3727 ha (about 54% of the city area) and the maximum value of subsidence is about 37 meters, there was a growth of the slopes at a simultaneous drop of the land average altitude, and the anthropogenic denudation ratio is 44 mm/year (800 greater than the natural denudation ratio).

Linear geological structures of the southern Aldan-Stanovoi shield and eastern Central-Asian Foldbelt: The geodynamic aspect

Based on the digital models of the relief and gravity anomaly field, the linear geological structures have been analyzed within the test area (122–129°E, 52–60°N) at the junction between the Aldan-Stanovoi Shield and a fragment of the eastern part of the Central-Asian Foldbelt. The application of a special filter to the digital relief model and the further processing of the initial data with the WinLessa program allowed us to obtain new additional information on the structure of the considered area. As a result, the temporal succession in the development of the geodynamic processes at the Stanovoi and Mongol-Okhotsk system-forming fault zones was established from the Late Jurassic till the present time. An evolution model of the junction boundary was proposed for this territory.

Broad-scale geomorphology and benthic habitats of the Perth coastal plain and Rottnest Shelf, Western Australia, identified in a merged topographic and bathymetric digital relief model*

A digital relief model (DRM) of the Swan Coastal Plain and Rottnest Shelf (7400 km2) was built with a range of topographic and high-resolution bathymetric datasets, gridded to a 50 m cell size. The DRM enabled the delineation of relict coastal landforms, benthic habitats and development of a regional morphostratigraphic framework. Well-defined features include: (1) limestone ridges on the coastal plain that sit subparallel to the modern shoreline and were largely formed as coastal dune barriers during or shortly after Quaternary interglacial periods of high sea level; (2) rocky reefs on the inner shelf that rise up to 10 m above the adjacent seafloor, which are remnants of coastal dune barriers that formed when the sea level was 20–30 m lower than present and (3) a discontinuous ridge 3–10 m high along much of the outer shelf, which likely represents a coastal barrier that formed when the sea level was around 60 m lower than present. The DRM provides a useful regional perspective of the distribution and form of these extensive reefs.

Remote study of natural and man-caused transformation of the soil cover of intermountain basins in Southern Siberia

Based on decoded satellite images and digital models of relief, large-scale maps were compiled to make a basis for estimating the natural and man-caused transformation of typological diversity of the soil cover of the steppe basins in the Altai-Sayan region. The boundaries and information content of soil contours with amendments from the remote data can be used as controllable indicators when creating schemes of soil-ecological monitoring.

Analysis of the potential evapotranspiration demands in the Czech Republic between 1961–1990

Dynamics of the evapotranspirational demands in the Czech Republic within three decades from 1961 to 1990 has been studied. The determination of the levels of influence of the respective natural components depends on the regionalized modelling techniques. The project of regionalized modelling is theoretically based on the potential evapotranspiration values (ET0) calculated by FAO methodology (eqs. 1, 2) and the series of temperature and rainfall observations obtained by climatologic stations during a 30-year period from 1961 to 1990 and its relation to the absolute altimetric. The DMR-2 military digital elevation model of the Czech Republic relief consisting of a regular network of points with their altitudes specified in meters was used for the purpose of regionalized modelling. One step of the network in the S-42 coordinate system with the Gauss conforms cylindrical projection is equal to 100 meters; this implies that the smallest area for which the data can be processed is 1 hectare. The digital relief model can be linked to both direct (temperature, precipitation) and derived (evapotranspiration) quantities, which is one of the many novelties of regionalized modelling. The climatic data used in regionalized modelling records daily measurements were obtained by 85 climatologic and rainfall-monitoring stations from 1961 to 1990. Our results showed an appreciable decrease of the most drying area (ratio P/ET0 up to 0.755) in the last decade 1981-90; half as less amounts compared with the previous decade 1971-80 (about 500,000 hectares). On the other hand, an apparent increase (more than 500,000 hectares in comparison with the previous decade 1971-80) of the wettest area (ratio P/ET0 over 1.508) through the last decade was observed. Both first decades 1961-70 and 1971-80 look similar. The project mentioned in this article has made it possible to create models for the different time intervals which have showed higher reliability for heterogeneous application.

Investigation of earthquakes' geo-surroundings in the Pannonian Basin by using GIS tools

The mechanism of earthquake occurrence in the Pannonian Basin is not clear in most cases (in other words, it is often not possible to find a relationship between the location of epicenters and the elements of the maps of recent tectonic movements), hence a GIS has been created in order to clarify the origin of these events. The special seismological GIS includes all relevant information (maps and joint database) concerned with earthquakes covering the whole territory of Hungary. GIS contains the following maps: special macro- and microseismic epicenters and their parameters; different active tectonic fault maps; digital terrain model of the recent relief; digital terrain models of different geological basements; appropriate geophysical anomaly maps; Quaternary sediment thickness; recent rivers, water streams and settlements. GIS enables us to carry out special operations between different layers by applying its tools in order to reveal the recent tectonic movements and to throw light upon the generation of possible earthquake occurrences. Results of the present investigation in GIS revealed that significant relation exists between the earthquake foci and recent tectonic lines. Some foci, however, can not be related to fracture lines. One part of earthquakes showed agreement with Pre-Tertiary basement areas of considerable slope, with the recent tectonic elements of Geomorphological maps and with the piedmonts of the North Hungarian Range. Some traces of recent movements have been found with the help of the multiplication map of Quaternary sediment thickness map and Recent relief (Digital Elevation Model).

The Sources of Uncertainty in Forecasting Caspian Sea Level and Estimating the Inundation Risk of Coastal Areas

Stochastic variations in the climate and hydrological regime, both natural and anthropogenic, are the main cause of uncertainty in long-term hydrological forecasts and hence increase the estimated risk of economic activity in the coastal zone of internal seas. Some sources of uncertainty, which appear during the hydrological analysis, are considered with the purpose to assess this risk. Digital relief models were used to determine the morphological characteristics (as functions of the sea level) and assess their contribution to variations in the level regime. To take into account the sample uncertainty in the parameter estimates of stochastic models of the “impellent” processes, it is proposed to use the existing methodology of probabilistic-deterministic prediction of water level variations in a closed water body in combination with the Bayesian approach.

Creating the virtual Eiger North Face

The described activities aim at combining the potentials of photogrammetry, remote sensing, digital cartography and virtual reality/photorealism with the needs of modern spatial information systems for tourism and for alpinism in particular (the latter aspect is, however, not covered in the paper). Since for slopes steeper than 45°, a digital relief model in nadir projection cannot adequately depict the terrain even in low-angle views, digital Steep Slope Models (SSMs) with a rather vertical reference plane are desirable. This condition very much applies to the Eiger North Face which has been chosen as a testbed for the realisation of a virtual rock face and which shall later be embedded into a lower resolution synthetic landscape of the Eiger–Moench–Jungfrau Region generated from a DTM and satellite imagery. Our “SSM approach” seems justified by the fact that except for the visualisation, commercial software was used which is very limited both in DTM modelling and texture mapping. For the creation of the actual SSM, a pair of oblique coloured air photos has been used, resulting in both a digital face model of 3.7 m grid size and an orthophoto with a resolution of 0.25 m. To demonstrate the alpinistic potential of the product, climbing routes have been inserted into the face model, thus enabling even non-experienced individuals to enjoy the “virtual reality conquest” of the Eiger North Face and potential climbing candidates to prepare themselves for the actual “real world” enterprise.

Комбінація цифрової моделі рельєфу із зображеннями «Landsat-7» для визначення топографічних характеристик місцевості з метою проведення радіометричної корекції

Комбінація цифрової моделі рельєфу із зображеннями «Landsat-7» для визначення топографічних характеристик місцевості з метою проведення радіометричної корекції

Mathematical basis of formatting digital models of relief

This paper deals with a mathematical basis used for formatting the Digital Models of Relief (DMR) of the Earth's physical land surface. The theoretical and mathematical basis is described and mathematical expressions for approximation of the lines and surface elements in formatting relief's space structural features are given. These expressions are significant for the selection of appropriate solutions while using computer support in the DMR making procedure. The selections depend on their application and a required accuracy.