Development Of Trade Relations Research Articles

АНАЛІЗ ВПЛИВУ ТАРИФНИХ ТА НЕТАРИФНИХ ОБМЕЖЕНЬ НА ТОРГОВЕЛЬНІ ВІДНОСИНИ ЄС ТА УКРАЇНИ

Over the past decade, trade issues between the European Union (EU) and Ukraine have become increasingly relevant and complex. As part of the implementation of the Association Agreement, much attention is being paid to the impact of tariff and non-tariff restrictions on trade relations between the two partners. Both sides have invested significant efforts in expanding and improving their economic partnership. However, the complexity and diversity of tariff and non-tariff restrictions create new challenges for the sustainable development of trade relations. This article conducts a comprehensive analysis of the profound implications resulting from tariff and non-tariff constraints on trade relationships between the European Union (EU) and Ukraine. A significant focus is directed towards the consequences emerging from the Association Agreement established between these stakeholders and the consequential dismantling of customs barriers. A meticulous examination is dedicated to tariff restrictions, aimed at evaluating their substantive impact on trade volumes and their subsequent influence on specific sectors that may fall within their purview. Additionally, the study delves into the intricate interactions of tariffs, shedding light on potential avenues for the enhancement of the supply of goods to the markets. Within the broader context of trade relations, this article thoroughly explores the intricate web of political and economic factors. It scrutinizes the influence of political agreements, the efficiency of administrative procedures, and the overall effectiveness of customs clearance processes. In conclusion, this study underscores the intricacy and multifaceted nature of the interplay between tariff and non-tariff barriers in the realm of EU-Ukraine trade relations. Furthermore, it successfully identifies opportunities for future regulatory enhancements that can foster unimpeded and efficient trade exchanges between the concerned parties. Summary the article delves into the influence of both tariff and non-tariff barriers on trade relations between the EU and Ukraine. It covers the beneficial effects of Ukraine's association with the EU on trade, the consequences of diminished tariff barriers, obstacles arising from non-tariff regulations, the significance of dialogue and collaboration, and the geopolitical backdrop of these trade connections.

Development particulars and trends of foreign trade activities of the Russian Federation

The project development, which is especially noticeable at the regional economic level, has got wide application for the purpose of sustainable development of the territories. The regional economics and global economy are interdependent categories that can be confirmed by the example of imposing the foreign trade sanctions, which are currently expanding on an almost weekly basis. Therefore, we are of the opinion that it would be reasonable to consider the situation in the foreign trade of the Russian Federation, because it is just this issue that creates conditions for development of the territories and, undoubtedly, predetermines the project management efficiency to a greater extent. This research paper discloses the particular features and trends of development of the Russian Federation foreign trade under the present conditions. Three types of scenarios, according to which it is possible to provide for development of trade relations of the Russian Federation, are determined. The paper provides the analysis of the possibilities of the Russian Federation trade development under the conservative scenario (basically, trading of hydrocarbons) and stresses on the special importance of performing the transition to the innovation and forced scenarios (transition to trading of the innovation goods) while performing the international trade activity. On the basis of the revealed development scenarios there are created groups of trends, within the frameworks of which, in our view, the foreign trade of the Russian Federation has to be developed.

ВПЛИВ ПРОТЕКЦІОНІСТСЬКИХ ЗАХОДІВ НА ТОРГОВУ ВІЙНУ МІЖ США ТА КИТАЄМ

The article provides the analysis of the development of trade relations between the two largest economies in the world – the United States of America and China and the impact of protectionist measures on their course, and in particular on the period from 2018 – trade war and its consequences for both states. The main stages of the formation of trade between the USA and China and the role of the WTO in this process are studied. The positive and negative consequences of deepening trade relations between the United States and China are considered. Trade protection measures applied by both countries, in particular during the trade war between Washington and Beijing are taken into account. Important components of the study are statistical data on changes in trade volumes between states and trade volumes to which protectionist measures were applied, which makes it possible to assess the scale of the impact of the US-China trade conflict on the economies of both countries and on world trade. China's protectionist policy has always forced the US to turn to the WTO to settle dumping and subsidizing issues. Trump administration began to overprotect the American economy and this resulted in what the whole world still calls the biggest trade war in recent history. A particular concern about Beijing's "national leader" policy forced Washington to act. According to research by American experts, such a policy will create unrealistic competition in the market and establish China's monopoly in many areas of trade. The fact that the world economy is gradually recovering from the effects of COVID-19 adds relevance to this, as the reduction in domestic production has collapsed the volumes of US domestic production, threatening a wave of unemployment, the general decline of the United States economy and a potential recession. The issue of settling the dispute between the two giants of the economy falls on the WTO that cannot resolve the conflict and shuts down in attempts to find a solution. The ability of political leaders of both countries to step over national pride for the sake of global trade could be the way, but this way does not seem possible.

POST-BREXIT: FROM INTEGRATION TO CONFRONTATION

The article is devoted to the analysis of current relations between the European Union and the United Kingdom, as well as the possibilities for creating a closer partnership. The article considers three areas of mutual interest for the parties – the preservation of the EU regulatory framework in British law, cooperation in Northern Ireland and the development of trade relations. The author comes to the conclusion that the presence of objective prerequisites for the creation of a new integration format does not automatically lead to its implementation. On the contrary, the ruling elite of Britain is aimed at maximum distance from the EU rules, which is expressed, in particular, in the consistent change of the Union legislation preserved in national law and the desire to abolish specific regulation in Northern Ireland. Special attention is paid to the situation around the implementation of the Northern Ireland Protocol and the British bill, which cancels its effect unilaterally. The author concludes that instead of a unique integration format and the prosperity of the region, the parties may, in extreme cases, come to a state of trade war and exacerbate contradictions within Northern Ireland.

TRADE AND HOTEL AND TOURISM INDUSTRY OF THE CZECH REPUBLIC IN THE CONTEXT OF EUROPEAN INTEGRATION: OPPORTUNITIES FOR UKRAINIAN-CZECH COOPERATION (2000–2019)

The purpose of the article is to comprehensively analyze the Czech experience of reforming society in the trade and hotel-tourism complex in the context ofEuropean integration during the fi rst two decades of the 21st century (2000–2019). The study reveals the characteristic features of the process of adaptation of Czech society to European standards, the study of the peculiarities of Czech economic reforms and their possible use for Ukraine. Research methodology. The authors of the study used a variety of scientifi c methods that allow for the analysis and generalization of information, as well as to expand knowledge about the interaction between Ukraine and the Czech Republic in the spheres of European integration, trade and tourism. To solve scientifi c problems, the authors of the publication applied general scientifi c methods of cognition: analysis, synthesis, systematicity, /generalization, concreteness, historicism, and the dialectical method. In historical research, the dialectical method is most fully implemented through the principles of historicism, therefore, during the research, the authors preferred historical methods: historicaldescriptive method (historical-genetic, historical-comparative, historical-synthetic), historical-diachronic, empirical analysis method, etc. Scientifi c novelty. The main scientifi c novelty is the analysis of the impact of European integration on the development of trade relations and the hotel and tourism industry of the Czech Republic, as well as the study of the possibilities of cooperation with Ukraine in these areas. In addition, the mentioned topic is relevant in the modern context, where international trade, hotel and restaurant business andtourism are becoming increasingly important elements of economic development. The study of the Ukrainian-Czech perspective in the context of European integration opens up new opportunities for cooperation and development of both countries, as well as complements scientifi c research in the fi eld of international relations, economics and tourism. Conclusions. In the process of European integration, the Czech Republic actively developed its trade andhotel and tourism industries, using various mechanisms of cooperation with the countries of the European Union. This included the implementation of joint projects and programs aimed at developing tourism, improving infrastructure and increasing trade turnover. The Czech Republic has successfully attracted international funds, such as European Union programs, for joint projects with Ukrainian partners, which has contributed to increased investment andmodernization of tourism infrastructure. In addition, cooperation with other EU countries in these areas contributed to increasing the competitiveness of the Czech Republic on the European market.

The Soviet Union’s Economic Relations with Austria and the Federal Republic of Germany: Political Factors and the Art of Diplomacy (1955–1964)

The author of this article carries out a comparative analysis of the trade and economic relations of the Soviet Union with Austria and the FRG from 1955 to 1964 (focusing on features of formation and development, contractual foundations, driving forces, and problems). At the same time, the emphasis of the research is on identifying the influence of the political factor of interstate relations on the development of economic cooperation. A comparative analysis of the history of the USSR’s trade and economic relations with Austria and Germany has not been carried out before. The history of the economic interaction of the Soviet Union with these contractors separately has not been sufficiently studied by historical science either. Regarding Austria, Russian and foreign historiography has traditionally focused on the State Treaty of 1955 and its economic component in the form of compensatory supplies. As for the FRG, this initial period has not been studied at all in national historical science, except for several essays. German historians have studied not so much the government’s economic course as the initiatives and activities of industry representatives united in the eastern committee of the German economy. The author employs the comparative-historical method of research and methods of economic science (to a limited extent) and statistical analysis (indicators of foreign trade, bilateral trade). The article aims to contribute to a more complete reconstruction of the wide range of East-West interactions during the Cold War by exploring such a convergent component for both systems as bilateral trade. The Austrian phenomenon of the successful development of trade relations with the USSR is viewed through the prism of a compromise solution to the Austrian question and its economic consequences in the form of fulfilment and reduction of compensatory deliveries. The author highlights the role of the political factor in foreign economic planning and its implementation by both the Soviet Union and its Western capitalist counterparts, neutral Austria, and Germany, which is part of NATO, determining the differences between the latter. If for the trade and economic relations between the USSR and Austria the political factor played a constructive role which brought the two countries closer, for relations with the FRG it was quite destructive, mostly because of the fault of the West German leadership. The article refers to documents of the Russian State Archive of Contemporary History and the Russian State Archive of Economics introduced into scholarly circulation for the first time and egodocuments.

Non-resource exports of developed and developing countries: Major support measures and challenges of the current stage

Aim. The presented study aims to form an objective idea of factors affecting the system of support for non-resource exports and ensuring the validity of decisions.Tasks. The authors summarize the main ways of supporting non-resource exports of developed and developing countries; analyze changes in the international regulation of export activities associated with the formation of national support systems for commodity producers; systematize major opportunities for supporting export credits.Methods. This study analyzes the practices of export credit agencies in various countries in the context of opportunities provided to foreign trade participants; identifies problem areas typical for the current stage of development of trade relations; draws attention to emerging contradictions in the field of support for national non-resources exports by countries.Results. It is shown that the participants of the Arrangement on Officially Supported Export Credits (OECD) operate in an extremely aggressive, yet increasingly unmanageable environment. To secure export contracts, both the domestic industry and the export credit agencies of the OECD member countries should enhance competitiveness by following the rules of the trading system. Otherwise, they risk upsetting the balance on the playing field and hinder sustainable development.Conclusions. The participants of the OECD Arrangement face a difficult tactical choice: either to take a strong position in support of competition both within the country and within international organizations (WTO, OECD), or to develop their own export credit programs that are not related to the OECD Arrangement. The first option, although preferable in terms of ensuring economic efficiency, long-term competitiveness, and sustainable development, may lead to a reduced role of export credit agencies.

Trade agreements of the Eurasian Economic Union: current state and prospects

The article discusses the main approaches of the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU), a regional trade bloc created to support the sustainable economic growth of the countries of the region, towards establishing regional and interregional trade cooperation, including through conclusion of trade agreements. The article describes the network of existing EAEU’s trade agreements and formulates proposals for further development of trade relations. The article concludes that the Eurasian integration represents a necessary condition for further strengthening of interregional trade and economic ties of the EAEU.

Trends and prospects for the development of Ecuadorian-Peruvian relations

The article examines key trends and prospects for the development of Ecuadorian-Peruvian relations, which are of particular interest in the sphere of international cooperation for both Ecuador and Peru. The purpose is to examine the trends of cooperation in various areas between Peru and Ecuador. In accordance with the main goal, the following objectives were set: to identify the features of joint coordination of stability in the border areas, including activities to curb illegal trade of weapons and drugs; to examine Ecuadorian-Peruvian economic relations, including development of trade relations; to identify key aspects of the development of Ecuadorian-Peruvian relations in culture, education and tourism, as well as environmental cooperation and support for indigenous peoples. In the areas of culture, tourism, education and the environment, Ecuadorian-Peruvian relations are quite underdeveloped and require activation of a number of measures proposed by the authors: improvement of the legal and regulatory framework in the field of above mentioned relations; increased financial support for cooperation in culture, education, tourism and the environment; increased promotion of the importance of relations between Ecuador and Peru, especially among youth; attraction to more active cooperation of public representatives organizations and businesses. Another important factor is the enhanced activity of Ecuadorian representatives in attracting foreign direct investment from Peru for the implementation of projects in different sectors of the economy in the country.

ROLE OF CUSTOMS OF STEPPS IN REALIZATION OF PRODUCTS OF CATTLE BREEDING

The article reveals the role of customs in the transportation of livestock products from the Kazakh Steppe. The history of trade and economic relations between the Russian Empire and Kazakhstan is an object of study for both Russian and domestic historians. In the regulation of foreign economic activity in the 19th century, the role of customs was significant. They regulated not only trade and economic, but also political processes. It was the Asian direction that became dominant in the foreign policy of the Russian Empire. The article focuses on the main areas of trade. The most significant customs points through which trade operations were carried out have been identified. Statistical and archival data on the problem under study are given. Trade relations were of great importance not only for Kazakhstan, but also for Russia. The importance of individual customs is revealed. In the article, a special role is given to barter trade, fairs. The most significant centers of fair trade are singled out. In the development of trade relations a huge role was played by the transport industry. The transportation of goods was mainly carried out by the Kazakhs. This occupation became one of the main ones, which made it possible for the indigenous population to earn money.

The role of handicrafts in the development of trade relations in the eastern bukhara principalities

The role of handicrafts in the development of trade relations in the eastern bukhara principalities

СТАНОВЛЕНИЕ ТОРГОВОГО СУДА В ДРЕВНЕЙ РУСИ

The article highlights the process of formation of merchant ships in Ancient Russia. It is noted that the need for the institution of judicial proceedings of economic disputes arose along with the development of trade relations, which later developed into broader economic relations. The article reveals the norms contained in Russian Pravda, the Dvina Charter, the Novgorod court Charter, and other legal acts that regulate trade relations in a certain way, including issues of resolving trade disputes.

Russia – Central and Eastern European Countries: The New “Iron Curtain”

The article deals with the problems associated with the participation of the countries of Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) in the economic sanctions imposed against Russia by the European Union, especially those related to the restriction of imports of Russian energy resources by these countries. The authors analyzes the consequences of the sanction war for the economies of CEE countries, for the development of trade relations with Russia, including those resulting from the withdrawal of a number of CEE countries’ companies from the Russian market. The prospects for the restoration of economic ties between the CEE countries and Russia in the medium term are considered.

Международное позиционирование региона: образ Калининградской области в медиапространстве стран Балтии

The issue of international positioning is crucial to all exclaves, and the Kaliningrad region surrounded by the Baltic region countries is no exception. This contribution aims to describe a general strategic path for positioning the Russian territory in question. To produce recommendations on a positioning concept, it looks at the ties between the Kaliningrad region and the neighbouring Baltic States and how the former is perceived by the latter. Publication monitoring and media content analysis were carried out to explore the image created in the Latvian, Lithuanian and Estonian media in recent years. Avenues for positioning are proposed in line with the principles of place branding, and the interests common to the region and the Baltic States are considered through the lens of international cooperation projects. The emphasis is on the prospects for trade relations development. The main advantages of the region are identified, and the risks to be reckoned with when forming a positioning concept are determined. The findings suggest that strategic positioning is feasible in the case of the Kaliningrad region; its focal points may be investment, logistics, tourism and infrastructure. The authors also stress the possibility for developing international cooperation platforms and indicate regional problems of international concern.

ПРАВОВІ ПИТАННЯ ЗАПРОВАДЖЕННЯ ІНСТИТУТУ АВТОРИЗОВАНОГО ЕКОНОМІЧНОГО ОПЕРАТОРА

The article covers current legal issues on implementing the institution of an authorized economic operator (AEO). The directions for developing the domestic economic and transport legislation are outlined. According to the International Monetary Fund data, supply chain disruptions have become a major challenge for the global economy since the start of the pandemic caused by COVID–19. Shutdowns of factories in China in early 2020, lockdowns in several countries across the world, labour shortages, as well as demand for tradable goods, disruptions to logistics networks have resulted in big increases in freight costs and delivery times. It is noted that the ongoing problems in the supply chain have caused some changes in the development of trade relations of Ukraine with other countries due to its transit state status. The institute of authorized economic operator was established in Ukraine according to the Law of Ukraine «On the amendments to the Customs Code of Ukraine on certain issues of functioning of authorized economic operators» adopted in October 2, 2019. It is emphasized that implementing the institution of the authorized economic operator corresponds to Ukraine’s obligations under the Association Agreement between the European Union and its Member States, of the one part, and Ukraine, of the other part. It is noted that more than 80 % of all customs clearance in the EU is carried out by companies with AEO authorization. A resident business entity as a participant of the international supply chain (including manufacturer, exporter, importer, customs representative, carrier, freight forwarder, warehouse keeper) may be authorized economic operators due to multi-stage conformity assessment system. In addition, the current legislation should be updated, in particular relevant provisions of the Economic Code of Ukraine, transport codes and laws in order to provide legal basis for authorized economic operators’ activities as the participants of freight transportation, as well as unifying the legal requirements for the AEO and carriers, freight forwarders, etc.

Развитие дарксторов как конкурентоспособной формы доставки товаров

The aim of the scientific article is to study the transition of retail entities from the store format to the e-commerce format using the competitive advantages of dark stores. The subject of the research is competitive advantages when using high-tech and flexible forms of supply chains and in the delivery of goods. The relevance of the scientific article is due to the fact that the pace of development of online trade in 2018-2020 testifies to the growth of the largest companies in the e-commerce sector annually. This growth is due to high-tech trend trends that have been actively developing in recent years. They are structurally formed into a single system, the elements of which are: the use of Big data, the digital transformation of trade business processes, the integration of global marketing technologies, the use of smart forecasting and analysis of consumer behavior, personalization, orientation towards virtual content. This system is inherently aimed at the globalized development of trade relations. The authors investigate the essence of the concept of “dark store”, analyze the competitiveness of this phenomenon in e-commerce in modern conditions. Dark stores promote the development of a new generation of commerce, with competitive advantages, they do not interfere with existing production and distribution processes, but rather complement them. Currently, all large trade organizations of the food and non-food sectors are engaged in electronic commerce. First of all, online commerce is organized through online stores and marketplaces, but there are still many other electronic means of making a transaction - this is a page on a social network or a chatbot of a messenger, dark stores that require additional research. It is appropriate to characterize such marketplaces as aggregator sites playing the role of specialized structural intermediaries with a stable base engaged in the sale and distribution of the products of commercial agents. E-commerce in the dark store format thus contributes to the high-quality and competitive development of global economic ties.

Development of Existing and Alternative Formats of Retail Chains in the Context of the Pandemic

In the current conditions of development of trade relations, one branch of the economy is particularly distinguished from other types of activity, and this is retail chains. We have high expectations for this area to meet basic human needs during the pandemic. The buildup caused by COVID-19 has put retail chains and supply chains on the brink of survival. Nevertheless, at the moment, we can make straightforward conclusion that the Russian food retail has effectively and promptly dealt with the current situation in order to meet the consumer needs. It quickly moved online and established its technological processes to do home delivery. The analysis showed that the volume of orders made online increased in March 2021 fivefold compared to March 2020. In this study, the author employed the methods of statistical and factor analysis. The article revealed the role of network retail in providing the public with the necessary goods and services during the pandemia. The study examined the ways of improving trade policy of retailers who are forced to develop alternative formats of trade under new economic conditions, in particular, online trade. The article provided the classification of retail chains operating in the FMCG retail format (consumer goods).

УЧАСТИЕ АЗЕРБАЙДЖАНА В ФОРМИРОВАНИИ ТРАНСКАСПИЙСКОГО ТРАНСПОРТНОГО КОРИДОРА

The Trans-Caspian International Transport Route has great potential for the development of trade relations between Europe and Asia. Azerbaijan, which is considered to be an important point on the East-West trade route, is extremely interested in the development of this road and the expansion of its transit opportunities. Measures to develop the transport system in the republic are also important for the development of the Trans-Caspian Transport Corridor. Significant steps have been taken in Azerbaijan to develop road, rail and sea transport. Passenger and cargo transportation is carried out on the routes Baku — Aktau and Baku — Turkmenbashi in the Caspian Sea. Nevertheless, the Trans-Caspian transport route is not yet one of the main routes. This is largely due to the presence of bureaucratic barriers and the lack of completion of the modernization of transport infrastructure and logistics systems in the Caspian basin countries. Elimination of these problems, simplification of border crossing procedures and creation of modern logistics centers are important conditions for the development of the TransCaspian Transport Corridor.

KEY TRENDS DURING THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE "ONE BELT AND ONE ROAD" INITIATIVE

At the "One Belt and One Road" forum held in Beijing on May 14-15, 2017, Chinese Leader Xi Jinping formulated the basic principles of the "Chinese new vision of globalization". These are the principles of respect for sovereignty, territorial integrity, social order and respect for the interests of all countries along the way. Dialogue, not confrontation, partnership, not rivalry. Within the framework of the project, China is creating an open platform for cooperation and a favorable investment environment. The most important component of globalization and economic growth is trade. It is on the basis of these assumptions that China calls for protecting multilateral trade relations and facilitating the simplification of customs and transit procedures. Investment "outside" will allow China not only to significantly expand the export market, but also to become a strong argument for the internationalization of the Chinese currency. In general, we are talking about maximizing the use of integration processes in the Eurasian space for the development of China's national economy. At the same time, China for the first time provided a strategic program for the creation of a land trade route, aimed at completely reformatting trade and economic processes on the continent, creating completely new geopolitical and geo-economic ties. The ongoing processes of globalization are gradually transforming the very concept of "landlocked country" into the definition of"country connected by land transport arteries". Keywords: "One Belt, One Road" initiative, Globalization and regionalization, development of trade relations in Eurasia, international transport corridors, integration with national projects.

RETRACTED: Government regulation of the Internet as instrument of digital protectionism in case of developing countries

The research is devoted to the study of digital protectionism technologies, in particular, Internet censorship as a non-tariff barrier to digital trade and the determination of the strategic motives of states to use them. The reports ‘Freedom on the Net’ and ‘The network readiness index 2020’ acted as a basic data source for the study of modern instruments of government regulation of interactions in the digital environment. Internet censorship technologies have been considered in six countries with varying levels of Internet freedom: Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Georgia, Armenia and Estonia. The key instruments of digital protectionism as a non-tariff barrier of the digital economy have been identified, such as: localisation requirements; restrictions on cross-border data flow; system of national protection of intellectual property rights; discriminatory, unique standards or burdensome testing; filtering or blocking; restrictions on electronic payment systems or the use of encryption; cybersecurity threats and forced technology transfer. Internet censorship technologies have been demonstrated and their influence on the strategic development of trade relations between economies in cyberspace has been determined. The scientific value of the article lies in substantiating the understanding of Internet censorship as a natural tool for regulating the development of a digital society and international trade relations. Each state at one time goes through a technological stage of development, which leads to the emergence of different levels of digital isolation and integration; and Internet censorship is a natural element in the system of building a national platform economy and consolidating the country’s internal technological and innovative advantages in digital realities.