Development Of Trade Relations Research Articles

ТОРГОВЫЕ ОТНОШЕНИЯ МЕЖДУ РОССИЕЙ И ИСПАНИЕЙ В НАЧАЛЕ XIX В

This article examines the development of trade relations between Russia and Spain during the reign of two Spanish kings: Charles IV and Ferdinand VII. The author’s attention is focused on the agency of diplomats, who made a big advance in the formation of trading relations between the two countries. The author concentrates on Ivan Muravyov-Apostol, the Russian ambassador to Spain (1802-1805), his Spanish partner Gaspar Maria de la Nava y Alvarez de Norona (1802-1807), and on the consuls of Spain Antoni de Colombi (St. Petersburg) and Francisco de Baguer y Ribas (Odessa). Based on their reports, which are located in both Rus-sian and Spanish archives, it is possible to trace the dependence of commercial relations from the political situation in the world, established in Europe in the era of Napoleonic wars. Their information also allows revealing the main stages of development in trading during these years and the future, observe the merchantry on the Baltic Sea and in the area of the Black Sea. Ana-lyzing these materials, conclusions about the cause of diminishing of the commercial activity between Russia and Spain during the reign of Ferdinand VII can be made. The attention of the author is also paid to the conditions, which were established for the trade of Spain´s main export product to Russia - wine, and trading of grain through the area of the Black and Mediterranean Seas, which received special progress in the beginning of the 19th century.

Historical transformation of cities originality of Samara province in the second half of the XIX century

The problem of historical cities formation is very relevant in recent years. The second half of the XIX century is a period of reforms in the Russian history, when many values were rethought.This historical period was a period of industrialization and urbanization, when aprovincialcitygot its new development and prosperity.This paper is devoted to the historical development and transformation of the Samara province city in the second half of the XIX century.Every city of theSamara provincepassed a unique way of developmentduring the study period and contributedto the development ofthe originality region.Both sides characterize the originality of the cities: economic and social. Economic uniqueness of the Samara province cities in the second half of the century was reflected in such indicators as: industrial production and development of trade relations (in the province there was a variety of places and forms of trade: fair, railway station and harbor). A social component of the originality of the region county town was made of the population characteristics: the number, class hierarchy, the mentality. Each element formed the uniqueness of the county towns as well as created a common image of industrial Russia.

Importance of the CIS Countries to the Development of Foreign Trade Relations of Slovakia

Abstract This submission is focused on examination of foreign trade relations development between Slovakia and the CIS countries. It highlights the importance of these countries in the Slovak foreign trade. Slovakia is a country that is highly dependent on the international exchange of goods. On the one hand, Slovak developed manufacturing industry demands raw materials, and on the other hand is being forced to seek an outlet for its production. Although the most important business partners of Slovakia are the EU countries, CIS countries represent an important and sufficiently perspective market. Significant part of solved issue consists of examination of the Slovak foreign trade development and analysis of the Slovak foreign trade relations with the CIS countries. The result of the assessment is evaluation and identification of further opportunities for penetration of Slovak exports to those markets and potential improvement of mutual investment relations in the context of current geopolitical changes in the international business.

Partner na trudny czas. Obraz Austrii w świetle materiałów Ministerstwa Spraw Zagranicznych Polskiej Rzeczpospolitej Ludowej z lat 1980–1983

The aim of this article is to show how the Fourth Department (Western Europe) of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Polish People’s Republic (PRL) assessed its relations with Austria in 1980–1983. This topic is analysed from the perspective of the existing research on Polish foreign policy and its relations with the West. The article mainly presents the Polish perspective of bilateral relations and efforts to restore good trade relations with Austria. Before martial law was introduced in the PRL, this neutral Western country had evidently favoured Polish affairs in the international arena. The contribution of Bruno Kreisky’s personal diplomacy to the development of trade relations with the PRL is also taken into account. There is a thesis that Austria was one of the first countries in the West which renewed diplomatic relations with the PRL after their having been frozen in December 1981. In the light of the existing studies, such measures were first taken in 1984 in the so-called fraternal countries and in 1985 in Western countries. Materials taken into account in this analysis have not yet been published, and come from the archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. In the Polish diplomatic documents from 1980–1983, Austria has the image of „a partner in difficult times”. Since 1970, the Austrian government under the leadership of Chancellor Bruno Kreisky was at first perceived exceptionally well in the PRL, compared to other Western countries. After the imposition of martial law, Vienna repeatedly confirmed its willingness to provide Poland with not just humanitarian, but also diplomatic and economic support, refraining from making negative comments on Polish authorities on the international forum. Kreisky avoided sharp statements against Polish authorities, fearing the possible escalation of the conflict. He was convinced that the shift in power was not possible at that time and in that area. He judged negatively Western economic sanctions for two reasons. As he claimed, they struck only the society and common people, having no impact on the decisions of Polish politicians; on the other hand, they threatened the interests of Austria, which was inclined to import Polish raw materials and repay the existing financial obligations. Shortly after the exchange of correspondence on the circumstances of the martial law, the Austrian side, through the Embassy in Vienna, offered to re-establish correct relations. They excluded the possibility of conducting official state visits until the lifting of martial law; however, in April 1983, the first working group meeting with Otto von Bauer, the Deputy Secretary General of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Austria, was arranged in Vienna. This event was treated as an example to follow in the other diplomatic posts of the Fourth Department.

Latvian Potential in the Trade with the EU Countries

Abstract The importance of international trade for the economic development of any country, on the one hand, and the decreasing rates of goods turnover within the EU countries in recent years, on the other hand, reveal the relevance of the research on the assessment of Latvia’s trade potential with the EU countries. The aim of this study is to measure and assess Latvia’s export potential with the European Union countries based on the gravity model. Since the development of trade relations is influenced by various factors, the article provides an overview of empirical studies that analyse various factors determining the level of trade among the countries. Possible volume of exports from Latvia to the EU countries was calculated on the basis of gravity model; calculations were conditioned by several factors included in the model, such as GDP, geographical distance and the degree of country’s economic freedom. The article also provides an assessment of Latvia’s export potential realisation extent. The method described in this article allowed applying the gravity model for the assessment of cooperation between Latvia and the EU countries, and was suitable for the quantitative evaluation of the extent to which export potential was realised in other countries

Trade among BRICS countries: Changes towards closer cooperation?

Recent developments in the world economy have led to a new concept of international relations where emerging markets, notably BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa) economies, create a strong counterweight to the already existing world powers of the Triad (US, EU and Japan) in both economic and political areas. This results from the reallocation of global economic activities, global consumption to emerging and developing countries and hence import/export destination shifts. BRICS economies can be described today as being highly integrated into international trade, thus enhancing their engagement in the world economy. Even though the Triad remains among the most important trade partners for BRICS, their total share in BRICS’s trade is decreasing. This paper examines changing geographical trade patterns of BRICS’s exports in regard to significant changes in global trade shifts within the past decade. The aim of the paper is to identify product groups that are involved in BRICS’s trade relations development and show possible diversions. The assessment focuses on regional trade orientation among BRICS themselves and between BRICS and the Triad. The results are further tested on the consistency of the countries’ revealed comparative advantage together with the assessment of export trade introversion, complementarity and trade barriers. The results indicate that BRICS’s exports to markets other than the Triad are increasing but consist of less significant product groups. The export intensity assessment provided rather independent evidence of BRICS’s current behaviour than BRICS as a group. The most significant trade diversion from the Triad to BRICS was identified for the Mineral fuels, oils, distillation products, etc. product group exported by Brazil and South Africa to China and India.

Architecture and dynamics of Russian‐German economic relations

PurposeTrade and economic cooperation between Russia and Germany is traditionally among the most advanced areas of bilateral relations. In the framework of bilateral cooperation in both directions are the flows of goods, direct investments, credit and financial resources, transport – logistics, construction, consulting services and market know‐how, the exchange of labor and high technologies. The overall macroeconomic situation in Russia is clearly not an obstacle to operate on the Russian market, although some accompanying phenomena deter investors. The aim of this paper is to explore the architecture and dynamics of Russian‐German economic relations.Design/methodology/approachIt is necessary to take notice of the rules relating to the protection of property, business liability and compliance with contractual relations. It is important not only to decrease taxes, but also to provide a tax system which is understandable and transparent, to avoid arbitrary exactions carried out by local authorities. Political stability, reasonable and predictable economic policies and an enabling institutional environment of business in Russia are the most important conditions for the growth of capital investments by German companies in the Russian economy and the development of trade relations. It is also necessary to solve particular problems, especially those related to financial risk coverage, both investors and exporters. It is advisable to raise the question of the establishment of special insurance fund, which would not have proceeded from political problems, and performance evaluations of specific projects for both sides. There are extremely important balanced and worked out laws as well as the presence of mechanisms for their implementation. The Russian authorities must develop and implement a clear strategy to support business in a foreign country and make great efforts to diversify exports, aware that initially it will be associated with certain costs.FindingsPriority should be given to the promotion of scientific and technological cooperation between our countries and promoting joint ventures in high technologies. It is exactly in the sphere of high‐tech, but not in the primary sector Russia has got a good chance due to the great intellectual potential, and education in Russia is one of the best in the world. Very promising – although it is not granting a quick and large‐scale impact – it is supporting participation on both markets as small and medium‐sized firms engaged in production activities. The paper has already established some bases for expansion of mutual presence: only in Moscow there are 739 representative offices and branches of German companies and legal entities in 2110, and in general in Russia there are 5205 German entities. In Germany also there are about 300 Russian trade associations, joint ventures and individual firms.Originality/valueThe paper shows the dynamics of Russian‐German economic relations during the period from 1970 until 2011. The paper considered the interaction structure of both economics. Statistical data of macroeconomic and foreign trade indicators are given.

THE CONCEPT OF <em>COMMERCIUM</em> IN THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

During their conquest of Italy the Romans devised various legal instruments to regulate their relations with people who did not possess Roman citizenship. One of the issues which needed regulation was trade: to protect the interests of merchants, laws had to be formulated which enabled trade between people from different political entities. Roman laws dealing with international trade developed over time as Rome’s empire expanded, and with it international trade between her citizens and those of other states. It is often assumed that the main instrument devised by the Romans to regulate trade with peregrini—a term which included Latin and Italian allies, as well as other non-citizens (see below, 403–406)—was the ius commercii, which might be translated literally as “right to trade.” It should be noted that the phrase ius commercii actually appears only rarely; commercium is used much more often. It is usually assumed that commercium was a right which could be granted to non-citizens, and which permitted them the use of certain legal instruments related to trade, otherwise only available to citizens. However, the origin of this right as a legal concept, the legal status it conferred onto its recipients, and the extent to which it was granted to peregrini are all issues which remain unclear. The sources for commercium mostly date from the late republican and imperial period, from Cicero and Livy to Gaius and the Digest. However, many theories on commercium are based on sources purporting to describe very early Roman history. This causes the argument to become circular: scholars attempt to combine later, mostly imperial, sources with the limited information available for the early republic, which is also mostly found in later sources, such as Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus. The current theories on commercium therefore give a false picture of continuity and rigidity, and ignore the development of trade relations under the republic and the flexibility of Roman law. In this article I will investigate one commonly held belief among modern scholars, namely that commercium was essential for trade between Romans and peregrini. Commercium is often defined as the right to conclude contracts with Romans which could be upheld in Roman courts of law. Sherwin-White, for

Islam in Africa and its impact on the development of trade relations with Egypt

Islam in Africa and its impact on the development of trade relations with Egypt

A Study on Development of Trade Relations and Logistics Systembetween North Korea and China

A Study on Development of Trade Relations and Logistics Systembetween North Korea and China

Географічні аспекти зовнішньоторговельних зв’язків України

The dynamics and modern state of Ukraine’s foreign trade with commodities and services as well as its inner trade peculiarities have been reviewed. The main parameters, structural features, geographical directions of Ukraine’s foreign trade relations development have been analyzed. Key words: foreign trade relations, foreign trade with commodities, foreign trade with services, volumes of export, import, commodity turnover, balance of foreign trade with commo- dities and services, investments.

Türkiye -Türk Cumhuriyetleri Dış Ticaret İlişkilerine Genel Bir Bakış

Turkic Republics, which won their independence in 1991, has been seeking to establish economic links with the world. These Republics are Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan. Of the 12 countries that won their independence, these five countries, whose ethnic origin, language, religion and culture are very similar, has a unique relations with Turkey. They wanted to overcome various problems after their independence with the help of Turkey with which they had various links. This situation made Turkey a privileged country among others. While Turkic Republics are exporters of crude oil, natural gas and industrial raw materials, they import various consumption goods especially food. Compared to Turkey in terms of their production structures, export and import demands, it can be seen that Turkey and these countries complement each other and have a potential for a large trade volume. Turkey, with its qualified human resources, know-how level and experience in international relationships, has the competency for providing Turkic Republics with some advantages in various areas. In this study, foreign trade relations with Turkey of Turkic Republics, in the process of reestablishing their economies and their links with the world, in the transformation period starting from their independence to today have been evaluated. Development of trade relations has been analyzed via time series of exports and imports in different sectors, percent distributions and indices. Some suggestions were made regarding the development of future trade relations in a better and smooth way.

К вопросу о Российско-Китайской торговле в 30-40-е годы XIX века (Trade relations of Russia and China in the 1830 - 1940s)

The 1830.1940s became a new stage in the development of trade relations between Russia and China. The growth of industry in Russia influenced the Chinese export. There was a great demand for the goods from China in the home market, practically over the whole territory of the Russian Empire. But in the middle of the 19 th century the English policy of expansion, broadening British market in the central and the northern parts of the country made the Russian authority to find new ways to the development of trade relations with the Chinese Empire.

Ensuring Harmonisation of Contract Law at Regional and Global Level : the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods and the Role of UNCITRAL

Commercial patterns have substantially influenced African history and, in particular, the interaction of Africans with foreigners. The development of trade relations highlighted the need for an adequate regulatory framework to ensure their predictability and stability. It seems possible to trace uniform elements in African international trade law through the centuries. In the early days, contracts were concluded and performed instantly and therefore requested minimal regulation.1 Common traits in customary contract and guarantee law were already present throughout the continent.2 In particular, formal elements in the formation of the contracts and its proof seem to have been widespread and to have lasting

Trade Policy Making in a Small Island Economy: The WTO Review of the Maldives

The purpose of this paper is to examine trade policy regime and trade‐related development issues in the Maldives on the basis of the Trade Policy Review Maldives 2003 of the WTO. The key theme of the paper is that, given the narrow resource base and small domestic market, openness to foreign trade and investment remains the ‘natural’ policy choice for a small developing economy like the Maldives. Since the late 1980s, the Maldivian government has made considerable progress in implementing policy reforms driven by this conviction. However, the reform process is far from complete. High import tariffs maintained predominantly on revenue considerations, a large direct role played by the public sector in foreign trade and some key sectors of the economy, lack of transparency in duty concessions and other investment incentives, failure to incorporate environmental concerns as part of the national development policy, and delays in meeting reform commitments under the WTO are among the key items of the unfinished reform agenda.

Explaining Trade Flows of Singapore

The objective of this paper is twofold. First, the development of the trade patterns of Singapore and particularly between Singapore and its South‐East Asian partners will be outlined and interpreted against a backdrop of relevant trade policy measures, for example in the context of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Second, a simple model of the gravity type is applied in order to establish and quantify the role of various trade determinants. Despite the fact that Singapore has strived at being a ‘global city’, it remains rather heavily biased towards East Asia as far as foreign trade is concerned. The role of ASEAN in particular is strong, even if the role of entrepôt trade tends to exaggerate the degree of integration between the economies of Singapore and ASEAN. It also seems clear that the latter, as an organization, has not contributed much to the development of trade relations between its members. Rather the closeness and the liberalization of these economies during the last 15 years or so appear to have been decisive. It is interesting to note that the newer members of ASEAN seem to have been integrated quickly in Singapore's economic network.

Sur le chemin de l'intégration : un point de vue hongrois

On the road to integration : a Hungarian point of view. The study deals with selected high-priority issues of Eastern enlargement of the European Union (EU), following the decisions at the Madrid summit meeting. Special attention is devoted to the "integration maturity" of Central European countries. After reviewing the already achieved objectives in the political and economic areas, the author argues in favour of a comprehensive national strategy in order to get adequately prepared for full membership as soon as possible. In this context, special emphasis is laid on investment-based growth, budgetary and institutional reforms. Analysing the key areas of the preparation for, and future négociation on accession to the EU, the author highlights the development of trade relations, agricultural adjustment, issues of financial transfer, and the movements of manpower. In all cases, the article makes use of a differentiated approach, underlining the substantial differences among the individual candidate countries, and calling attention to the high risks of a "block approach and mentality". The process of Eastern enlargement is embedded into a prospective and global framework. The final conclusion is that Eastern enlargement has to be considered as a strategic task of all countries involved in order to sustain the European balance of power and to enhance Europe's global competitiveness. Finally, some remarks are made on Hungary's integration strategy, focusing on the possibility of gradual enlargement in geographic terms, and improved cooperation possibilities with CEFTA.

Commerce, Agriculture, and Core Formation in the Upper Yangzi, 2 A.D. to 1948

Vol. 9, No. 1 Late Imperial ChinaJune 1988 COMMERCE, AGRICULTURE, AND CORE FORMATION IN THE UPPER YANGZI, 2 A.D. TO 1948* Paul J. Smith Introduction The story of the disasters that punctuated Sichuan's long climb to pride of place as China's most populous province is well known. As shown in Figure 1 , the forty years that Mongol armies battered at Sichuan's defenses before breaking through to topple the Southern Song in 1279 decimated the provincial population to something like a twentieth of its late-Song peak. A region rich enough to have earned the sobriquet 'Heaven's Storehouse ' (tianfu) was reduced to a backwater frontier, and backwater it remained until population growth and commercial revival in China as a whole stimulated the redevelopment of Sichuan in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. But then disaster struck again in the early 1640s, as the armies of Zhang Xianzhong, the Southern Ming, Wu Sangui, and the new Qing dynasty itself all used Sichuan as a battleground for rebellion and imperial ambition. For a second time the native population was killed or scattered and the economic infrastructure destroyed. This time recovery, powered by the surge of migrants from Huguang, Lingnan, Fujian, and Jiangxi, was astonishingly rapid. The region regained its lateSong demographic peak sometime in the eighteenth century, then more than tripled in population in the next century and a half to surpass 100 million individuals by 1983. The full extent of Sichuan's seventeenth-century disaster is still a matter of controversy, while assessment of the thirteenth-century holocaust has just begun.1 Certainly the calamities have fueled the impression in popular * I would like to thank the members and staff of the Center for Chinese Studies, The University of Michigan, for their generous help and support in the preparation of this article. The original version was presented at the International Conference on Spatial and Temporal Trends and Cycles in Chinese Economic History, 980-1980, co-sponsored by the ACLS-SSRC Joint Committee on Chinese Studies and the Rockefeller Foundation, convened in August 1984 at the Rockefeller Foundation Study and Conference Center, Bellagio, Italy. 1 On the Mongol campaigns and Sichuanese resistance see Hu Zhaoxi 1982 and 1984, and Chen Shisong 1985. On the demographic impact of Zhang Xianzhong's campaigns and the wars of conquest and consolidation in Sichuan see Hu Zhaoxi 1980; Suzuki Chusei 1952:6696 ; and Entenmann 1982. Figure 1. Population of the Upper Yangxi, A.D. 2-1948 (1,000 Households) 9000 8000 7000 6000H 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000H 2 140609 7421080 12001282 1391 1542 1685 1800 1948 Sources: Robert M. Hartwell, "Demographic, Political, and Social Transformations of China, 750-1550," Table 1, p. 369, supplemented by Sichuan tongzhi 64/9a and Hu Zhaoxi, Zhang Xianzhong tu Shugaibian lian che Huguang dian Sichuan, pp. 50-51. 5"K I3 Commerce, Agriculture, and Core Formation in the Upper Yangzi3 and historical imagination of a Sichuan successively cut off from its past, repopulated each time by the outsiders who came in to build anew on the ashes of the previous disaster. From this perspective the history of Sichuan in the last millenium and a half can be divided into three discrete epochs, defined and separated from each other by catastrophe: a sevencentury cycle of growth spanning the Sui-Tang reunification to the Mongol conquest of the Southern Song; a 350-year cycle of low-level recovery aborted by rebellion and the collapse of the Ming; and the three-hundred years of recovery and rapid growth constituting the rise of modern Sichuan. But if we step back far enough and attempt to put the disasters themselves into perspective it becomes possible to uncover trends that link the three successive epochs, and to relate changes in Sichuanese society and the economy to secular developments in the larger Chinese world. By adopting a long historical perspective, it is possible to show how throughout the imperial era changes in the spatial distribution of Sichuan's population related to expansion of the region's agrarian base, and to the development of trade relations with neighboring regions to the east and south. The themes I will pursue are as follows. From about...

Foreign Trade Law of Romania

Romanian foreign trade with the free enterprise countries of Europe, the Americas, and Asia was insignificant for a long period after World War II. The main causes for this situation were the internal transformation taking place within Romania's social, economic and political structure, and the deep changes occurring in world politics and economics. Due to Romania's defeat, the lengthy presence of Soviet occupying forces, and her obligation to pay the Soviet Union in excess of $300 million in war compensation,' Romania has become a communist country whose entire economy, foreign affairs, and trade policies are molded in the Soviet pattern. The intense ideological struggle of international politics between the communist bloc and the free enterprise countries after World War II could not have had any favorable effect on the development of trade relations with Romania. The pre-war bilateral trade agreements (article Io of the Treaty of Peace between the Allied/Associated Powers and Romania)2 were reinstated by some of these countries but failed to become effective. Only in the I950's, when relations between the great powers were becoming more relaxed, did Romania begin to concentrate activity on the Western market. By this time, Romania had paid off war debts to the Soviet Union, as well as most compensation to the West for property nationalized in the late I940's. In the period I955-59, the results of trade with the free market countries were modest. There were too many domestic problems; Romania lacked hard currency, commodities demanded by the free enterprise markets, qualified trading specialists, organization in domestic industry, and an effective export plan. Thus, in this period, total exports to the Western European countries amounted to $80-9I.Io million and total imports to $51.80-65.90 million.3 By 1965, exports had risen to $266.55 million and imports to $297.57 million.4 This increase was due to the continuation of international detente, and to improvements in Romanian trade specialization and export output. Between 1967 and I972, the Romanian government adopted a series of laws which totally reorganized both production and foreign trade on a competitive basis. The most important of these legislative measures were as follows: the 1967 decree establishing the Institute for the Study of International Economic Conjuncture;5 the