Depressive Symptoms In Young Adults Research Articles

Association of changes in sleep duration and quality with incidence of depression: A cohort study

BackgroundThe longitudinal relationship between sleep duration, sleep quality, and their changes with the risk of depressive symptoms is unclear. We examined the association between sleep duration, sleep quality, and their changes with incident depressive symptoms. MethodsA total of 225,915 Korean adults without depression at baseline with a mean age of 38.5 years were followed for an average of 4.0 years. Sleep duration and quality were assessed using the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index. The presence of depressive symptoms was assessed using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression scale. Flexible parametric proportional hazard models were used to determine hazard ratios (HRs) and 95 % confidence intervals (CIs). ResultsIn total, 30,104 participants with incident depressive symptoms were identified. Multivariable-adjusted HRs (95 % CIs) for incident depression comparing sleep durations of ≤5, 6, 8, and ≥9 h with 7 h were 1.15 (1.11–1.20), 1.06 (1.03–1.09), 0.99 (0.95–1.03), and 1.06 (0.98–1.14), respectively. A similar trend was observed in patients with poor sleep quality. Compared with participants with persistently good sleep quality, participants with persistently poor sleep quality or who developed poor sleep quality were associated with the risk of incident depressive symptoms [HRs (95 % CIs) of 2.13 (2.01–2.25) and 1.67 (1.58–1.77), respectively]. LimitationsSleep duration was assessed using self-reported questionnaire and the study population may not reflect general population. ConclusionsSleep duration, sleep quality and their changes were independently associated with incident depressive symptoms in young adults, suggesting that inadequate sleep quantity and quality play a role in depression risk.

An Examination of Sleep as a Mediator of the Relationship between Childhood Adversity and Depression in Hispanic and Non-Hispanic Young Adults

The current study integrates previous research on adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and long-term health outcomes to examine associations between ACEs, sleep duration, and depression in a diverse, mostly healthy, sample of young adults. We examine whether sleep duration mediates the association between ACEs and depression among young adults, and whether ethnicity may moderate observed relationships between ACEs, sleep duration and depression. Data were collected from 518 young adults (66.8% female, M age=19.79 years, SD age=3.43 years) enrolled in undergraduate Psychology courses at a large Southwestern university. Participants primarily reported their racial/ethnic background as Non-Hispanic White (60.6%) and Hispanic/Latino (25.1%). Participants self-reported their ACEs exposure, sleep characteristics, and depressive symptoms. In addition to calculating overall exposure to ACEs, scores for the specific dimensions of adversity were also calculated (Abuse, Neglect, Exposure to Violence). Results supported a mediation model whereby higher reports of ACEs were associated with depressive symptoms both directly and through sleep duration. Results were not moderated by ethnicity. Findings provide support for sleep duration as one potential pathway through which ACEs may be associated with depressive symptoms in young adulthood, and suggest that this pathway is similar in Hispanic and non-Hispanic young adults.

Computational markers of experience- but not description-based decision-making are associated with future depressive symptoms in young adults

BackgroundEarly prediction of high depressive symptoms is crucial for selective intervention and the minimization of functional impairment. Recent cross-sectional studies indicated decision-making deficits in depression, which may be an important contributor to the disorder. Our goal was to test whether description- and experience-based decision making, two major neuroeconomic paradigms of decision-making under uncertainty, predict future depressive symptoms in young adults. MethodsOne hundred young adults performed two decision-making tasks, one description-based, in which subjects chose between two gambling options given explicitly stated rewards and their probabilities, and the other experience-based, in which subjects were shown rewards but had to learn the probability of those rewards (or cue-outcome contingencies) via trial-and-error experience. We evaluated subjects' depressive symptoms with BDI-II at baseline (T1) and half a year later (T2). ResultsComparing subjects with low versus high levels of depressive symptoms at T2 showed that the latter performed worse on the experience- but not description-based task at T1. Computational modeling of the decision-making process suggested that subjects with high levels of depressive symptoms had a more concave utility function, indicating enhanced risk aversion. Furthermore, a more concave utility function at T1 increased the odds of high depressive symptoms at T2, even after controlling depressive symptoms at T1, perceived stress at T2, and several covariates (OR = 0.251, 95% CI [0.085, 0.741]). ConclusionsThis is the first study to demonstrate a prospective link between experience-based decision-making and depressive symptoms. Our results suggest that enhanced risk aversion in experience-based decision-making may be an important contributor to the development of depressive symptoms.

Mediation by coping style in the association between stressful life events and depressive symptoms in young adults.

The association between stressful life events and depressive symptoms is well-established, but the role of coping style in this association is less clear. We examined whether problem-focused, emotion-focused or avoidant coping style mediated and/or moderated the association in young adults. Data were drawn from a 20-year longitudinal study that included 1294 students' age 12-13years recruited in 1999-2000 from ten high schools in Montreal, Canada. Herein we report an analysis that included 782 participants aged 24years on average with data on covariates collected at age 20. Using VanderWeele's four-way decomposition approach, the total effect of stressful life events on depressive symptoms considering coping styles was decomposed into four components: moderation only, mediation only, mediated interaction, no mediation or moderation. We observed mediation only by emotion-focused coping ([Formula: see text](95%CI) = 0.15(0.04, 0.24)) suggestive that individuals who experienced more stressful life events also reported greater use of emotion-focused coping and higher levels of depressive symptoms. We found moderation only by problem-focused coping ([Formula: see text](95%CI) = -1.51(-2.40, -0.53)) and by emotion-focused coping ([Formula: see text](95%CI) = 1.16(0.57, 1.69). These results suggest that individuals reporting more problem-focused coping experienced fewer depressive symptoms after exposure to stressful life events; those reporting more emotion-focused coping experienced more depressive symptoms. Avoidant coping did not mediate or moderate the association between stressful life events and depressive symptoms. Interventions that aim to reduce depressive symptoms in young adults who experience stressful life events may need to reinforce problem-focused coping and minimize emotion-focused coping strategies.

Anxiety, depression, and rejection towards parents among individuals who grew up in a hoarded home.

Limited research has investigated parent-child conflict and mental health among adult children of parents with hoarding problems. Four hundred fourteen participants who reported clinically significant parental hoarding completed assessments of parental hoarding characteristics (clutter, insight, difficulty discarding), feelings of rejection towards their parent, depression, and generalized anxiety. These latter 3 variables were retrospectively rated across childhood (age 0 to 12), adolescence (age 13 to 20), young adulthood (age 21 to 29), and adulthood (age ≥30 years). Path analyses assessed mediated relationships. More than one-half of respondents endorsed clinically significant generalized anxiety, and more than one-third endorsed clinically significant depressive symptoms across ages, with highest rates during adolescence. Parental insight was related to rejection across ages, and clutter was related to rejection from adolescence through adulthood. Rejection was significantly positively related to depressive symptoms and generalized anxiety in childhood and adolescence and to depressive symptoms in young adulthood. Poor insight was significantly indirectly related to depressive symptoms through rejection across childhood and adolescence and to generalized anxiety in childhood. Results suggest that parental hoarding may be a risk factor for anxiety and depression. Feelings of rejection towards parents may account for the link between parental hoarding and psychological distress, particularly between poor insight and depressive symptoms.

Network analysis of cognitive emotion regulation strategies and depressive symptoms in young adults after recent stressful events: The moderation of childhood maltreatment

BackgroundThe present study explored the interrelations between cognitive emotion regulation strategies (CERS) and depressive symptoms to better understand how young adults with childhood maltreatment (CM) are more prone to depression after recent stressful events. MethodsThe sample consisted of 342 young adults (M = 19.51 years, range = 17–28 years, 64% female) who had experienced stressful events in the last six months. Network analysis was used to examine the interrelations between nine CERS and four depressive symptom clusters in exposed (‘CM’; n = 182) and not exposed to CM groups (‘non-CM’; n = 160). ResultsWe found that somatic symptoms, rumination, putting into perspective, and catastrophizing had high expected influence (EI) in the whole sample network. Global and local connectivity differed between the CM and non-CM groups. More specifically, the structure of the CM network had higher overall connectivity than the structure of the non-CM network. Considering local connectivity, depressed affect, rumination, positive refocusing, and putting into perspective had marginally significantly higher levels of EI in the CM network. We found some significant differences in partial correlations among CERS, such as stronger positive correlations between positive refocusing-catastrophizing, rumination-refocus on planning, and putting into perspective-blaming others in the CM group. LimitationsThis study was cross-sectional and limited by the use of retrospective self-report tools. ConclusionsThe findings shed light on the complex interrelations between CERS and depressive symptoms in the context of recent stressful events. Additionally, they highlight potential directions for population-based interventions.

Exploring the causal role of intimate partner violence and abuse on depressive symptoms in young adults: a population-based cohort study

BackgroundPrevious studies have shown an association between experience of intimate partner violence and abuse (IPVA) and depression. Whether this is a causal relationship or explained by prior vulnerability that influences the risk of both IPVA and depression is not known.MethodsWe analysed data from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children prospective cohort (N = 1764 women, 1028 men). To assess the causal association between IPVA at 18–21 years old and logged depressive symptom scores at age 23, we used (i) multivariable linear regression, (ii) inverse probability of treatment weighting (IPTW), and (iii) difference-in-difference (DiD) analysis, which compared the mean change in logged depressive symptom scores between ages 16 and 23 between those who experienced IPVA and those who did not.ResultsWomen who experienced IPVA had on average 26% higher depressive symptom scores after adjustment for measured confounders (ratio of geometric means 1.26, 95% CI 1.13 to 1.40). In men, the difference was 5% (ratio of geometric means 1.05, 95% CI 0.92 to 1.21). Results from IPTW analysis were similar. In the DiD analysis, there was no evidence that being exposed to IPVA affected the change in depressive symptom scores over time compared to being in the non-exposed group for either women (difference-in-differences 1%, −12 to 16%) or men (−1%, −19 to 20%).ConclusionsMultivariable linear regression and IPTW suggested an association between IPVA and higher depressive symptom score in women but not men, but DiD analysis indicated a null effect in both women and men. This suggests the causal origins of higher depressive symptoms in this young adult population are likely to reflect prior vulnerability that leads to both higher depressive symptoms and increased risk of IPVA exposure.

Physical exercise, Sedentaary Behaviour, Sleep and Depression Symptoms in Chinese Young Adults During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Compositional Isotemporal Analysis

Numerous studies links movement activity (e.g., physical activity, sedentary behavior [SB], and sleep) with mental health or illness indicators during the COVID-19 pandemic; however, research has typically examined time-use behaviors independently, rather than considering daily activity as a 24-hour time-use composition. This cross-sectional study aimed to use compositional isotemporal analysis to estimate the association between reallocation of time-use behaviors and depression symptoms in young adults in China. Participants (n = 1475; 68.0% of female; 20.7 [1.60] years) reported their time spent in moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA), light physical activity (LPA), SB, and sleep. Replacing SB with sleep, LPA, and MVPA at 5, 10, or 15 min was significantly associated with lower estimated depression symptoms scores. For example, adding MVPA from SB at 15 min was associated with lower depression symptoms scores (estimated difference: −0.13 [−0.17, −0.09]). The associations between reallocation of time use behaviors with depression symptoms scores were slightly differentiated. Our results emphasize the importance of increased MVPA and decreased SB as well as their mutual replacements for lowering the risks of depression symptoms in young adults during the COVID-19 pandemic. Our results can inform policy to develop effective plans and strategies for mental health promotion.

Age-Varying Associations between Child Maltreatment, Depressive Symptoms, and Frequent Heavy Episodic Drinking.

Child maltreatment represents a prevalent public health issue that has been shown to predict both adolescent and young adult depressive symptoms and heavy episodic drinking; however, little is known regarding how associations between specific types of maltreatment (e.g., physical abuse, sexual abuse, care neglect, supervisory neglect) and depressive symptoms and heavy episodic drinking change across adolescence and into young adulthood. Similarly, there is lack of research that has examined how an accumulation of child maltreatment types relates to depressive symptoms and heavy episodic drinking across ages. Time-varying effect models-a statistical approach that allows researchers to pinpoint specific ages where the association between two variables is strongest-were used in the current study to address these gaps. Nationally representative data came from the first four waves of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health; N = 16,053; 49.4% female; 51.0% European American/White, 21.0% African American, 10.2% Biracial, 9.1% Hispanic; MAGE W1 = 17.00). Results suggested that certain types of maltreatment are more predictive of negative outcomes than others and that different types of maltreatment confer greater risk in different developmental periods. In addition, while victims of between one and three types of maltreatment had comparable prevalence of depressive symptoms and heavy episodic drinking across adolescence and young adulthood, victims of four types of maltreatment had a much higher prevalence of these outcomes indicating the extreme risk that accompanies an accumulation of maltreatment.

Impact of Prenatal Stress on Amygdala Anatomy in Young Adulthood: Timing and Location Matter

BackgroundExposure to maternal stress in utero has long-term implications for the developing brain and has been linked with a higher risk of depression. The amygdala, which develops during the early embryonic stage and is critical for emotion processing, might be particularly sensitive. MethodsUsing data from a neuroimaging follow-up of the European Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and Childhood prenatal birth cohort (n = 129, 47% men, 23–24 years old), we studied the impact of prenatal stress during the first and second halves of pregnancy on the volume of the amygdala and its nuclei in young adult offspring. We further evaluated the relationship between amygdala anatomy and offspring depressive symptomatology. Amygdala nuclei were parcellated using FreeSurfer’s automated segmentation pipeline. Depressive symptoms were measured via self-report using the Beck Depression Inventory. ResultsExposure to stress during the first half of pregnancy was associated with smaller accessory basal (Cohen’s f2 = 0.27, false discovery rate [FDR]-corrected p [pFDR] = .03) and cortical (Cohen’s f2 = 0.29, pFDR = .03) nuclei volumes. This effect remained significant after correcting for sex, stress during the second half of pregnancy, maternal age at birth, birth weight, maternal education, and offspring’s age at magnetic resonance imaging. These two nuclei showed a quadratic relationship with Beck Depression Inventory scores in young adulthood, where both smaller and larger volumes were associated with more depressive symptoms (accessory basal nucleus: adj. R2 = 0.05, pFDR = .015; cortical nucleus: adj. R2 = 0.04, pFDR = .015). ConclusionsWe conclude that exposure to stress during the first half of pregnancy might have long-term implications for amygdala anatomy, which may in turn predict the experience of depressive symptoms in young adulthood.

Fecal Short-Chain Fatty Acid Ratios as Related to Gastrointestinal and Depressive Symptoms in Young Adults.

Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) are produced by the gut microbiota and may reflect health. Gut symptoms are common in individuals with depressive disorders, and recent data indicate relationships between gut microbiota and psychiatric health. We aimed to investigate potential associations between SCFAs and self-reported depressive and gut symptoms in young adults. Fecal samples from 164 individuals (125 were patients with psychiatric disorders: mean [standard deviation] age = 21.9 [2.6] years, 14% men; 39 nonpsychiatric controls: age = 28.5 [9.5] years, 38% men) were analyzed for the SCFA acetate, butyrate, and propionate by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. We then compared SCFA ratios with dimensional measures of self-reported depressive and gut symptoms. Depressive symptoms showed a positive association with acetate levels (ρ = 0.235, p = .003) and negative associations with both butyrate (ρ = -0.195, p = .014) and propionate levels (ρ = -0.201, p = .009) in relation to total SCFA levels. Furthermore, symptoms of diarrhea showed positive associations with acetate (ρ = 0.217, p = .010) and negative associations with propionate in relation to total SCFA levels (ρ = 0.229, p = 0-007). Cluster analysis revealed a heterogeneous pattern where shifts in SCFA ratios were observed in individuals with elevated levels of depressive symptoms, elevated levels of gut symptoms, or both. Shifts in SCFAs are associated with both depressive symptoms and gut symptoms in young adults and may have of relevance for treatment.

The Long Shadow of Peers: Adolescent Networks and Young Adult Mental Health

Connections with peers play an important role in adolescent mental health, but their lasting impact is unclear. This study examines whether structural status and support in adolescent networks predict depressive symptoms years later. Using data from the PROSPER Peers study (n = 1017), I find that the persistent effects of networks differ based on the mental health of teens and their friends. Structures of status and support relate to young adult mental health only for individuals who experience depressive symptoms as teens. Among depressive adolescents, popularity predicts lower subsequent depressive symptoms, while high prestige predicts higher depressive symptoms in young adulthood. Embeddedness among depressed friends also predicts higher young adult depressive symptoms. Overall, findings suggest relationships with peers can set the stage for mental health for adolescents who experience depressive symptoms or have depressive friends.

Intimate Partner Victimization and Depressive Symptoms: Approaching Causal Inference Using a Longitudinal Twin Design

While a wealth of research reports a robust association between intimate partner victimization and depression, the relationship has not been tested using twin-based research designs to control for unmeasured genetic and shared environmental confounding. Twin data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health are analyzed to test the causal hypothesis that intimate partner victimization increases depressive symptoms across the life course. A series of twin-based research methodologies are used to examine whether twin differences in intimate partner victimization during late adolescence are associated with differences in depressive symptoms in young adulthood. Males and females did not significantly differ in their prevalence or frequency of reported intimate partner victimization during late adolescence. Genetic and nonshared environmental effects were found to account for the covariance between intimate partner victimization and depressive symptoms. After controlling for common genetic effects, within-twin pair differences in intimate partner victimization were positively associated with within-twin pair differences in depressive symptomatology. The results offer further support for the mental health consequences associated with intimate partner victimization and help strengthen causal inference arguments for the relationship between intimate partner victimization and depressive symptoms later in life.

COVID-19 Infection Risk and Depressive Symptoms Among Young Adults During Quarantine: The Moderating Role of Grit and Social Support.

Prior research has demonstrated that the adverse consequences of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic may go beyond its economic hardships and physical health concerns, having a significant influence on psychological distress for individuals under quarantine. Nevertheless, relatively little attention has been paid to exploring the risk and protective factors in the link between COVID-19 infection risk and psychological distress among young adults. Following a socioecological framework, the current study examines the moderating role of grit (perseverance and consistency) and social support in the association between COVID-19 infection risk and depressive symptoms. A sample of 1,251 young adults under home quarantine (62.6% female; M age = 20.92 years, SD = 1.47; age ranged from 18 to 25 years) was involved in this study, and they were asked to complete a set of self-reported questionnaires online. Results of a linear regression analysis exhibited that COVID-19 infection risk was positively associated with depressive symptoms in young adults in quarantine. Moreover, moderation analyses showed that this association was moderated by perseverance and social support. To be specific, for those reporting higher levels of social support, this linkage was not significantly positive; in contrast, for those reporting lower levels of social support, perseverance was a significant protective factor for depressive symptoms when young adults were exposed to a high infection risk of COVID-19. The current study suggests that greater social support is essential to helping young adults deal with possible negative emotions in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. Moreover, university-based counseling services should pay specific attention to those young adults with relatively insufficient social support resources and low levels of perseverance.

From adolescence to parenthood: a multi-decade study of preconception mental health problems and postpartum parent-infant bonds.

To examine associations between anxiety and depressive symptoms across adolescence and young adulthood with subsequent maternal- and paternal-infant bonding at 1year postpartum. The data were from a prospective, intergenerational cohort study. Participants (381 mothers of 648 infants; 277 fathers of 421 infants) self-reported depression and anxiety at three adolescent waves (ages 13, 15 and 17years) and three young adult waves (ages 19, 23 and 27years). Subsequent parent-infant bonds with infants were reported at 1year postpartum (parent age 29-35years). Generalised estimating equations (GEE) separately assessed associations for mothers and fathers. Mean postpartum bonding scores were approximately half a standard deviation lower in parents with a history of persistent adolescent and young adult depressive symptoms (maternal βadj = - 0.45, 95% CI - 0.69, - 0.21; paternal βadj = - 0.55, 95% CI - 0.90, 0.20) or anxiety (maternal βadj = - 0.42, 95% CI - 0.66, - 0.18; paternal βadj = - 0.49, 95% CI - 0.95, 0.03). Associations were still mostly evident, but attenuated after further adjustment for postpartum mental health concurrent with measurement of bonding. Persistent symptoms of depression or anxiety spanning adolescence and young adulthood predict poorer emotional bonding with infants 1-year postbirth for both mothers and fathers.

Changes in positive and negative peer influences and depressive symptoms from adolescence to young adulthood

IntroductionPeers are believed to continue as prominent sources of influence for young adults. However, having peers who use alcohol and drugs is associated with depressive symptoms in young adults and research on the effects of having peers who model positive activities beyond adolescence is scarce. MethodIn this 10-year study of 644 Canadian youth (52% female), we used multilevel modeling to examine the effects of within-person and between-person differences in the interplay of peer behaviours and changes in depressive symptoms between ages 14 and 25. Data were collected via face-to-face interviews and surveys for private topics. ResultsYouth with close friends who used drugs and alcohol consistently reported more depressive symptoms at each age, whereas having friends who engaged in positive activities was associated with fewer depressive symptoms, especially during adolescence. Moreover, at times when youth had more substance-using peers than usual (within person variation), they also reported more symptoms. ConclusionsSubstance-using peer contexts convey both short- and long-term risks for depressive symptoms. However, the protective effects of having peers who are engaged in positive activities, while generally protective, may be reduced in young adulthood. It is possible that older youth withdraw from peers and activities as their depression worsens, and prosocial activities become less supervised by parents, more optional, and more expensive.

Sleep Quality, Sleep Structure, and PER3 Genotype Mediate Chronotype Effects on Depressive Symptoms in Young Adults.

Depression and its related mood disorders are a major global health issue that disproportionately affects young adults. A number of factors that influence depressive symptoms are particularly relevant to the young adult developmental stage, including sleep loss, poor sleep quality, and the tendency toward eveningness in circadian preferences. However, relatively few studies have examined the relationship between sleep and circadian phenotypes, and their respective influences on mood, or considered potential molecular mechanisms driving these associations. Here, we use a multi-year, cross-sectional study of 806 primarily undergraduates to examine the relationships between sleep-wake chronotype, sleep disturbance, depression and genotypes associated with the PER3 variable number of tandom repeats (VNTR) polymorphism—circadian gene variants associated with both chronotype and sleep homeostatic drive. In addition, we use objective, Fitbit-generated sleep structure data on a subset of these participants (n = 67) to examine the relationships between chronotype, depression scores, actual measures of sleep duration, social jetlag, and the percent of deep and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep per night. In this population, chronotype is weakly associated with depressive symptoms and moderately correlated with self-reported sleep disturbance. Sleep disturbance is significantly associated with depression scores, but objective sleep parameters are not directly correlated with Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II) scores, with the exceptions of a moderate correlation between social jetlag and depression scores in females and a marginal correlation between sleep duration and depression scores. Multiple regression and path analyses reveal that chronotype effects on depressive symptoms in this population are mediated largely by sleep disturbance. The PER3 VNTR genotype significantly predicts depressive symptoms in a model with objective sleep parameters, but it does not significantly predict depressive symptoms in a model with chronotype or subjective sleep disturbance. Interestingly, PER35,5 genotypes, in males only, are independently related to chronotype and depression scores. Our results support hypotheses linking subjective sleep quality and chronotype and provide a first step in understanding how objective sleep structure may be linked to chronotype and depressive symptoms. Our results also suggest that circadian gene variants may show sex-specific effects linking sleep duration and sleep structure to depression.

School-Based Resources as Protective Factors from the Influence of Parental Incarceration on Depressive Symptoms

Although research on the deleterious effects of parental incarceration is extensive, few studies have examined factors that may attenuate these consequences. This study uses data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health to examine the relationship between experiencing parental incarceration during childhood and depressive symptoms in young adulthood. Most importantly, it considers the degree to which this relationship is moderated by the availability of secondary-school-based resources. Results suggest that the consequences of parental incarceration on depressive symptoms are weaker for adolescents who attend schools that provide emotional counseling or nursing services on school premises or employ at least 50 percent of teachers with a master’s degree or higher. These findings suggest that the availability of school resources contributes to adolescents’ long-term resilience despite facing adverse circumstances.

Role of Self-Criticism, Anxiety, and Depressive Symptoms in Young Adults’ Insomnia

The interplay between personality and psychopathology in young adults’ insomnia is poorly understood. The authors examined the main-and-interactive role of self-criticism, anxiety, and depressive symptoms in young adults’ insomnia, as well as the potentially mediating role of sleep-related arousal and maladaptive cognitive styles. One hundred sixty-one undergraduate freshmen (Mage = 25.0 years) were assessed twice over 1.5 months, using measures of sleep quality, anxiety, depressive symptomatology, self-criticism, pre-sleep arousal, and mental control strategies. A structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis revealed that anxiety prospectively predicted insomnia, and this effect was mediated by sleep arousal and social avoidance. As well, self-criticism prospectively predicted insomnia under elevated levels of depressive symptoms. In young adults, insomnia treatment should include a routine assessment and intervention with anxiety, depression, and self-criticism.

Occupational attainment and depressive symptoms in young adulthood.

Past studies have shown that various aspects of occupational attainment (unemployment, job instability, low occupational status, and low earnings) are associated with poor mental health, but each of these studies focused on one or two aspects of occupational attainment. Consequently, it remains unclear whether their associations are independent of each other. Further, little is known about whether negative self-assessments of occupational attainment are linked to poor mental health. We sought to overcome these limitations of past research while focusing on depressive symptoms as a mental health outcome and young adulthood as a life stage context. The study analysed U.S. data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (n = 13,178) using ordinary least square models. The analysis showed that all aspects of occupational attainment were associated with depressive symptoms in the expected directions. Further, unemployment, job instability, and negative self-assessment of career progress showed stronger associations, and those associations were independent of other occupational attainment variables. Overall, the results suggested that understanding the association between occupational attainment and mental health requires close attention to the life stage context.