Depressive Symptoms In Young Adults Research Articles

Developmental Trajectories of Subjective Social Status.

Subjective social status (SSS), a person's sense of their (or for youth, abstract their family's) position in the socioeconomic hierarchy, is strongly related to health in adults but not health in adolescence. Understanding this developmental discrepancy requires first understanding the developmental trajectory of SSS. The objective of this study was to identify the number and shape of SSS trajectories as adolescents transition to adulthood and explore if trajectory membership affects health. Using data from 7436 assessments from the Princeton School District Study, a decade long cohort study of non-Hispanic black and white youth, latent class growth models with 3 to 7 SSS trajectories were developed. Model fit, trajectory structure, and shape were used to guide optimal model selection. Using this optimal model, the associations of trajectory membership with BMI and depressive symptoms in young adulthood were explored. The 5-class model was optimal. In this model, trajectories were persistent high (7.8%),mid–high (32.2%), middle (43.4%), low–lower (7.4%), and high–low (9.1%). Non-Hispanic black race/ethnicity, lower household income, and low parent education were associated with membership in this high–low trajectory. High–low trajectory membership was associated with higher BMI and depressive symptoms in non-Hispanic white subjects but was not associated with depressive symptoms. It was associated with lower BMI only after adjustment for BMI in adolescence in non-Hispanic black subjects. SSS is relatively stable in adolescence and the transition to adulthood, and it generally reflects objective markers of social advantage. However, socially disadvantaged youth with high SSS in early adolescence may be at increased health risk.

A prospective study of screen time in adolescence and depression symptoms in young adulthood

ObjectivesThe purpose of this study was to examine the association between screen time in adolescence and depressive symptoms in young adulthood in a population-based cohort study of Danish adolescents. MethodsData were from a cohort of adolescents who were followed-up in young adulthood for a period of up to 12years (1997–2010, mean 8.8years, n=435). Information on television viewing, computer use, total screen time and other determinants of depression were obtained in adolescence. Depressive symptoms were obtained in young adulthood using the Major Depression Inventory (MDI) and classified as mild, moderate or severe depression. Mixed regression models were used to examine the associations, with adjustment for major confounders. ResultsIn multivariable adjusted analyses, each additional hour/day spent watching television or screen viewing in adolescence was associated with 1.36 (95% CI 0.73–1.98) and 1.05 (95% CI 0.50–1.60), respectively, greater MDI depression summary score in young adulthood (p<0.001). In logistic regression models, each additional hour/day spent watching television or screen viewing was associated with 1.64 (95% CI 1.18–2.27) and 1.58 (95% CI 1.18–2.12), respectively, greater odds of prevalent depression in young adulthood, and dose–response relationships were indicated. Additional adjustment for either cardiorespiratory fitness or BMI did not materially change the results. No significant associations were observed between adolescent computer use and depressive symptoms in young adulthood. ConclusionsLimiting screen time, particularly television viewing, during adolescence may be important for preventing depression in young adulthood.

Parenting Stress as a Mediator Between Childhood ADHD and Early Adult Female Outcomes

The purpose of this study is to examine the mediating role of parenting stress (both parental distress and stress due to dysfunctional interactions in the mother–daughter relationship [PSDI]) in the link between childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) status and several important young adult outcomes. The diverse sample comprised 140 girls with ADHD and 88 age- and ethnicity-matched comparisons, evaluated at ages 6–12 years and followed prospectively for five years (M age = 14.2) and 10 years (M age = 19.6). The PSDI experienced by a mother during her daughter's adolescence mediated the link between her daughter's childhood ADHD status and adult externalizing and internalizing symptoms. PSDI also mediated the link between ADHD status and young adult nonsuicidal self-injury and had an indirect effect in the relation between childhood ADHD and young adult depressive symptoms. The mediating role of PSDI with respect to internalizing symptoms and depressive symptoms remained in place even when covarying adolescent internalizing/depressive symptoms. Parenting stress, particularly related to maternal perceptions of dysfunctional interactions with adolescent daughters, serves as a key mediator in the association between childhood ADHD status and important domains of young adult functioning. Minimizing parenting stress and dysfunctional mother–daughter interactions during adolescence might reduce the risk of adverse adult outcomes for girls with ADHD.

Associations between HbA1c and depressive symptoms in young adults with early-onset type 1 diabetes

This study sought to evaluate the associations between metabolic control and each DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, fifth edition) symptom of depression among young women and men with early-onset long-duration type 1 diabetes. The data of 202 18-21-year-old patients with type 1 diabetes from a population-based, nationwide survey (40.1% male) with a mean age of 19.4 (standard deviation 0.9) years, a mean HbA1c level of 8.3% (1.6%) (i.e., 67 [17.5]mmol/mol), and a mean diabetes duration of 15.7 (1.0) years were included. The German version of the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) was used to assess depression symptoms. For each PHQ-9 depressive symptom, the mean HbA1c values of screening-positive and screening-negative patients were compared via t-test. The associations between HbA1c levels and depressive symptoms were analyzed using multiple linear regression analyses and stepwise adjustments for individual, socioeconomic and health-related covariates. Exactly 43.0% and 33.3% of female and male participants reported at least one depressive symptom, and 5.0% and 2.5% met the DSM-5 criteria for major depressive syndrome. HbA1c levels increased with psychomotor agitation/retardation (women), overeating/poor appetite (men/women), lethargy (men), and sleep difficulty (men). Overeating/poor appetite, lethargy, and total PHQ-9 score (per score increase by one) were associated with increased HbA1c levels of 1.10, 0.96 and 0.09 units (%), respectively. The associations between depressive symptoms and HbA1c levels vary by symptom and sex. Differentiating the symptoms of depression and targeted interventions might help to improve metabolic outcomes in young adults with early-onset type 1 diabetes and depression.

Blood cadmium and depressive symptoms in young adults (aged 20-39 years).

Genetic and environmental factors contribute to the risk of depression and several studies have noted an association between tobacco smoke and depression. Cadmium is a neurotoxicant and the main source of non-occupational exposure is tobacco smoke. We conducted a cross-sectional analysis of data from 2892 young adult (aged 20-39 years) participants of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2007-2010. Multivariate logistic regressions, adjusted for age, sex, race/ethnicity, education, poverty income ratio (PIR), obesity, alcohol intake, blood lead (BPb) and smoking status, were used to analyze the association between blood cadmium (BCd) and depressive symptoms, as determined by the score on the nine-item Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9). Individuals in the highest BCd quartile had higher odds of having depressive symptoms [odds ratio (OR) 2.79, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.84-4.25] than those in the lowest BCd quartile. Smoking status, but not BPb, was statistically significantly associated with depressive symptoms. Stratification by smoking status found that BCd was significantly associated with depressive symptoms in both non-smokers (OR 2.91, 95% CI 1.12-7.58) and current smokers (OR 2.69, 95% CI 1.13-6.42). This is the first study to report an association between BCd levels and depressive symptoms using a nationally representative sample. The association of cadmium with depressive symptoms was independent of smoking status. If this association is further confirmed, the continued efforts at reducing cadmium exposures, mainly through tobacco smoking cessation programs, may decrease the incidence of depression.

Early and late menarche and risk of depressive symptoms in young adulthood.

We investigated whether girls experiencing early menarche have an increased risk of depression during young adulthood. This study used data collected in the Growing Up Today Study (N = 9,039), an ongoing prospective cohort of the daughters of women enrolled in the Nurses' Health Study II. After excluding girls who were postmenarcheal at baseline in 1996, <20 or ≥26years old in 2007, or missing data on key covariates, the final sample size was 3,711. Self-reported age at menarche was collected annually. Depressive symptomatology was measured in 2007 using the 10-item Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression (CES-D-10) score. Sixteen percent of girls (N = 596) reported high levels of depressive symptoms (CES-D-10 ≥ 14) in 2007. Neither early nor late menarche was associated with high depressive symptoms (for early vs. normative menarche, odds ratio (OR) = 1.08, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.85-1.38; for late vs. normative menarche, OR = 0.91, 95% CI = 0.70-1.18) or with differences in continuous CES-D-10 score in young adulthood. Although previous studies suggest that girls with early menarche suffer from an increased risk of adolescent depression, this does not appear to persist into young adulthood.

Physical activity motivation mediates the association between depression symptoms and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity

ObjectiveTo test if motivational regulations (i.e., amotivation, external, introjected, identified, and intrinsic) mediate the association between depression symptoms and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) in young adults. MethodA total of 319 young adults from Montreal, Quebec participating in the Nicotine Dependence in Teens (NDIT) study provided self-report data on depression symptoms at age 20 (SD=0.7years) and motivational regulations at age 24 (SD=0.7years). MVPA was assessed using a self-report questionnaire at age 20 (i.e., at the same time motivation was measured) and using accelerometers one month later. Multiple mediation analysis with bootstrapping was employed to analyze the data. ResultsControlling for age, sex and self-reported MVPA at age 20years; introjected regulation was a significant mediator of the association between depression symptoms and MVPA (R2 adj=0.12; point estimate=−0.0011; BCa CI=−0.15 to −0.01). ConclusionDepression symptoms may undermine controlling forms of motivation, resulting in decreased MVPA. Intervention strategies may be needed to address depression symptoms in young adults to promote sustained MVPA.

The relationship between maternal depressive, anxious, and stress symptoms during pregnancy and adult offspring behavioral and emotional problems.

Prenatal maternal depressive, anxious, and stress symptoms have been found to be associated with child and adolescent behavior problems. In this paper, we investigate their impact on behavior problems and depressive symptoms in adulthood. Participants included 3,099 mother-offspring pairs from the Mater University Study of Pregnancy (MUSP), an Australian based, prebirth cohort study. We used latent class growth analysis (LCGA) with parallel processes to identify trajectories of maternal depressive, anxious, and stress symptoms over four time periods between the mothers' first clinic visit and 5 years postpregnancy. We fitted the estimates from the maternal trajectories in multivariate logistic regression models to predict internalizing and externalizing behavior at age 21. We adjusted for a wide range of prenatal and postnatal factors, including maternal life events, relationship quality, contact with the new born, as well as concurrent maternal depressive and anxious symptoms and father's history of mental health problem. LCGA found seven groups of mothers; one group of mothers exhibited high levels of depressive, anxious, and stress symptoms during pregnancy but not at later time points. Their offspring experienced increased levels of behavior problems and depressive symptoms. This paper provides the first evidence that high levels of maternal subjective depressive, anxious, and stress symptoms experienced in early pregnancy may predict internalizing and externalizing behavior problems and depressive symptoms in young adults.

Forecasting life and career satisfaction in midlife from young adult depressive symptoms

This 14-year, six-wave longitudinal study of 583 university graduates examined whether trajectories of depressive symptoms from age 23 to 30 predicted life and career satisfaction outcomes at age 37, after controlling for (a) time-varying associations of marriage and unemployment with depressive symptoms, (b) sociodemographic characteristics (age, sex, parents' education), and (c) family and labor market experiences assessed at age 37 (marriage and divorce, raising children, income, spells of unemployment, occupational status). Net of the effects of all covariates, lower depressive symptoms at age 23 predicted higher life and career satisfaction at age 37, and steeper declines in depressive symptoms predicted higher life satisfaction. From age 23 to 30, being married was associated with fewer depressive symptoms, and more unemployment (in months) was associated with more depressive symptoms. The course of depressive symptoms through young adulthood carries over into midlife, showing continuity even after accounting for family and labor market experiences.

Protective Factors Against the Impact of School Bullying Perpetration and Victimization on Young Adult Externalizing and Internalizing Problems

School-based bullying perpetration and victimization is common worldwide and has profound impacts on student behavior and mental health. However, few studies have examined young adult outcomes of bullying perpetration or victimization. Research on factors that protect students who have bullied or been bullied is also lacking. This study examined young adult externalizing and internalizing problems (age 18–19 years) and adolescent protective factors related to self-reported bullying perpetration and victimization among over 650 Victorians ages 16–17 years. Opportunities for prosocial involvement in the family lessened subsequent involvement in nonviolent antisocial behavior, as an outcome of prior bullying. High academic performance and having strategies to cope with stress reduced young adult depressive symptoms for participants who had been victims of bullying. The implications for bullying prevention and early intervention programs are discussed.

Low vitamin D levels are associated with symptoms of depression in young adult males

Results from studies examining associations between serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) concentrations and depressive symptoms are equivocal. We investigated the relationship between serum 25(OH)D concentrations and symptoms of depression, anxiety and stress in a cross-sectional analysis of a population-based sample of young adults participating in the Western Australian Pregnancy Cohort (Raine) Study. Participants provided a blood sample at the 20-year follow-up (March 2010-April 2012) for the measurement of serum 25(OH)D concentrations. Mental health symptoms were assessed using the 21-item Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21). Associations between serum 25(OH)D concentrations and total DASS-21 scores and subscale scores of depression, anxiety and stress were explored in males and females using negative binomial regression, adjusting for age, race, body mass index (BMI) and physical activity (n=735). Models examining subscale scores were also adjusted for the other subscale scores. After adjusting for confounders, an increase in serum 25(OH)D concentrations of 10 nmol/L decreased total DASS-21 scores in males by 9% (rate ratio (RR) 0.91; 95%CI 0.87,0.95; p<0.001) and depression subscale scores in males by 8% (RR 0.92; 95%CI 0.87,0.96; p=0.001). However, in adjusted models there were no significant associations between serum 25(OH)D concentrations and symptoms of anxiety and stress in males. There were no significant associations between serum 25(OH)D concentrations and symptoms of depression, anxiety and stress in females. We found an association between serum 25(OH)D concentrations and symptoms of depression, but not anxiety and stress, in males. Randomised controlled trials are necessary to determine any benefit of vitamin D supplementation in the prevention and treatment of depressive symptoms in young adults.

Sleep and sadness: exploring the relation among sleep, cognitive control, and depressive symptoms in young adults

BackgroundSleep disturbance is a common feature of depression. However, recent work has found that individuals who are vulnerable to depression report poorer sleep quality compared to their low-risk counterparts, suggesting that sleep disturbance may precede depression. In addition, both sleep disturbance and depression are related to deficits in cognitive control processes. Thus we examined if poor sleep quality predicts subsequent increases in depressive symptoms and if levels of cognitive control mediated this relation. MethodsThirty-five undergraduate students participated in two experimental sessions separated by 3weeks. Participants wore an actigraph watch between sessions, which provided an objective measure of sleep patterns. We assessed self-reported sleep quality and depressive symptoms at both sessions. Last, individuals completed an exogenous cuing task, which measured ability to disengage attention from neutral and negative stimuli during the second session. ResultsUsing path analyses, we found that both greater self-reported sleep difficulty and more objective sleep stability measures significantly predicted greater difficulty disengaging attention (i.e., less cognitive control) from negative stimuli. Less cognitive control over negative stimuli in turn predicted increased depression symptoms at the second session. Exploratory associations among the circadian locomotor output cycles kaput gene, CLOCK, single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), rs11932595, as well as sleep assessments and depressive symptoms also are presented. ConclusionsThese preliminary results suggest that sleep disruptions may contribute to increases in depressive symptoms via their impact on cognitive control. Further, variation in the CLOCK gene may be associated with sleep quality.

Genetic variants modify the association between developmental timing of exposure to physical and sexual abuse and depressive symptoms in young adulthood: evidence of a sensitive period?

for alcohol abuse/dependence, and 32.2% met criteria for drug abuse/ dependence. Additionally, those with hypomania were more likely to have ever used more social illicit drugs like cannabis (59.3%) and cocaine (32.3%) relative to socially isolating illicit drugs like prescription drugs (13.7%) in this sample, signifying that substance use could be a coping mechanism by which individuals choose to manage prodromal periods of mania or depression. There was no evidence that the associations between hypomania and substance use or dependence/abuse was moderated by race/ ethnicity. Hypomania is associated with increased likelihood of substance misuse and dependence/abuse across a broad range of substances. These lead to substance use and misuse in the community.

Emotion and task oriented coping styles modify the effect of stressful life events on depressive symptoms in young adults

Emotion and task oriented coping styles modify the effect of stressful life events on depressive symptoms in young adults

Disadvantaged Family Background and Depression among Young Adults in the United States: The Roles of Chronic Stress and Self‐Esteem

Although several longitudinal studies have demonstrated that having a disadvantaged family background is a risk factor for subsequent symptoms of depression, few studies have examined the mediating mechanisms that explain this long-term relationship. Thus, this study uses US national longitudinal data and integrates social stress theory with the life course perspective by focusing on two mediating mechanisms-the chronic stress of poverty and self-esteem during the transition to adulthood. Results reveal that self-esteem largely mediates the inverse relationship between parental education and levels of depressive symptoms in young adulthood. However, the inverse relationship between parental occupational prestige and depressive symptoms among young adults is not mediated by self-esteem, but rather long durations of poverty across 16 years. Overall, these findings suggest that different components of family socioeconomic status can leave a lasting imprint on mental health via the self-concept and the chronic stress of poverty throughout the journey to adulthood.

Family Conflict in Childhood and Adolescence and Depressive Symptoms in Emerging Adulthood: Mediation by Disengagement Coping

Exposure to family conflict in childhood increases risk for later life psychological maladjustment. The family environment shapes the development of coping strategies used to manage interpersonal stressors, representing a pathway through which adverse family experiences impact later emotional functioning. In 2 studies, we evaluated engagement and disengagement coping as mediators of the relation between family conflict in childhood and depressive symptoms in young adulthood. Study 1 included participants from continuously married families exposed to higher and lower quality childhood family environments and found that disengagement partially mediated the relation between family conflict and depressive symptoms. Study 2 examined these relations among emerging adults who experienced parental divorce. Results indicated that disengagement coping fully mediated the relation between family conflict and depression. Engagement did not emerge as a mediator in either study. Elevated family conflict across varying family structures might be associated with poor adjustment via disengaged responses to stress.

Major depressive disorder symptoms in male and female young adults

This research aimed to compare the prevalence rates of major depressive disorder (MDD) and to differentiate the presence and severity of depressive symptoms between women and men aged 18–24 years. In this population-based, cross-sectional study (n = 1560), young adults were screened with the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview for MDD (n = 137). Participants then completed a self-report questionnaire to gather sociodemographic data, and the presence of each symptom of depression was assessed with the Beck Depression Inventory. The proportion of women (12.2%) with MDD was higher than that of men (5.3%). The symptoms of depression found to be significantly more prevalent in women were sadness, crying, difficulty making decisions, and lack of energy, as well as self-criticism, irritability, changes in self-image, work difficulty, and loss of interest in sex. Sadness and self-criticism were significantly more severe in women than in men. The presentation of depressive symptoms in young adults with MDD differed between men and women.

Cognitive-reminiscence therapy and usual care for depression in young adults: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial.

BackgroundDepression is a common affliction for young adults, and is associated with a range of adverse outcomes. Cognitive-reminiscence therapy is a brief, structured intervention that has been shown to be highly effective for reducing depressive symptoms, yet to date has not been evaluated in young adult populations. Given its basis in theory-guided reminiscence-based therapy, and incorporation of effective therapeutic techniques drawn from cognitive therapy and problem-solving frameworks, it is hypothesized to be effective in treating depression in this age group.Methods and designThis article presents the design of a randomized controlled trial implemented in a community-based youth mental health service to compare cognitive-reminiscence therapy with usual care for the treatment of depressive symptoms in young adults. Participants in the cognitive-reminiscence group will receive six sessions of weekly, individual psychotherapy, whilst participants in the usual-care group will receive support from the youth mental health service according to usual procedures. A between-within repeated-measures design will be used to evaluate changes in self-reported outcome measures of depressive symptoms, psychological wellbeing and anxiety across baseline, three weeks into the intervention, post-intervention, one month post-intervention and three months post-intervention. Interviews will also be conducted with participants from the cognitive-reminiscence group to collect information about their experience receiving the intervention, and the process underlying any changes that occur.DiscussionThis study will determine whether a therapeutic approach to depression that has been shown to be effective in older adult populations is also effective for young adults. The expected outcome of this study is the validation of a brief, evidence-based, manualized treatment for young adults with depressive symptoms.Trial registrationAustralian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry ACTRN12613000084785.

The association between past and current physical activity and depressive symptoms in young adults: a 10-year prospective study

PurposeThe objectives of this study were to assess (1) the longitudinal associations of past moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and involvement in team sports during secondary school with depressive symptoms in early adulthood, and (2) the cross-sectional associations of current MVPA and involvement in team sports with depressive symptoms during young adulthood. MethodsData were drawn from the Nicotine Dependence in Teens study, which is an ongoing prospective cohort study of 1293 adolescents aged 12–13 years at baseline (52% female). Data analyses involved latent growth curve modeling and multiple hierarchical linear regression models. ResultsCurrent MVPA (β = −0.12), but not past MVPA, participation was significantly negatively related to depressive symptoms during young adulthood (P < .05). Both current and past involvement in team sports were significantly negatively related to depressive symptoms (β ≥ −0.09; P < .05); however, these associations were no longer significant (P = .08) when covariates were controlled for. ConclusionsFindings provide insight about the unique associations between the timing and type of physical activity and depressive symptoms, suggesting that physical activity within team sport contexts should be encouraged so that young adults may experience less depressive symptoms.

Pathways to Depressive Symptoms in Young Adults: Examining Affective, Self-Regulatory, and Cognitive Vulnerability Factors

Recent models of depression (e.g., from Hyde and colleagues) have integrated affective and cognitive vulnerability factors, positing that a temperamental factor (i.e., negative emotionality) contributes to the development of cognitive vulnerability factors, which in turn conveys risk for depressive symptoms. Recent literature suggests that effortful control may reduce the strength of the relationship between affective and cognitive factors. However, few studies have examined the different cognitive vulnerability factors (cognitive style, brooding, and stress-reactive rumination) through which negative emotionality contributes to depressive symptoms, or how effortful control may influence these paths. 315 young adults (72% women, M age= 20.7 yr., SD = 1.4) answered psychometric measures of temperament factors (negative emotionality and effortful control), and three cognitive vulnerability factors (cognitive style, brooding, stress-reactive rumination), and depressive symptoms. Two hypotheses were tested concerning mediation and moderation of the relationship between negative emotionality and depressive symptoms. Cognitive style and brooding were significant mediators of this relationship, while effortful control did not moderate relations between negative emotionality and cognitive vulnerability factors. Results support models that integrate affective and cognitive vulnerability factors predicting depressive symptoms.