Collective Security Research Articles

European Union Energy Security: Constructing a “Shelter” for Small States’ energy security preservation

Energy security has been one of the most important issues in the European Union over the past few years. Although the debate has focused primarily on the approach of the main EU powers, this research aims at studying the impact of small Member States’ size on their energy security in the EU. Then it provides proposals to safeguard the energy security of EU small countries by providing a comprehensive interpretation of the term alliance in shelter theory. Applying the composed “smallness” index and the quantitative method, the results imply a direct relationship between the small states’ size and energy security in the first step. The study shows that such a relationship cannot be proven in non-small States. Although the EU has tried to strengthen collective energy security in Member States, such differences show that complementary policies are needed to ensure energy security in small countries. Given an extensive interpretation of “alliance” in shelter theory, this research proposes deep integration of the small states’ energy infrastructure in order to ensure their energy security. In the aftermath of the Russian invasion of Ukraine, where the EU’s energy security, especially in the small states, is more fragile than ever, adopting such a policy seems more vital.

The Role of the NATO in Collective Security and how it has transformed and evolved over the years

This paper is about how and for what purpose NATO as an organization for collective security was established. To begin with, this paper says that NATO was established to counter and contain the communist threat in the shape of Russia. This was an era of the cold war. However, once the cold war was over and Russian disintegration happened in 1989, NATO didn't disappear but defined for itself a changing role in the changing world. It was because of this newly defined role that NATO survived and outlived its primary purpose. However,since the terrorists' attack on the twin towers on 9/11, NATO has further transformed to undertake military operations in areas that fall beyond its scope of operations. It has been seen as involved not only in military operations but also in humanitarian assistance in countries hit by natural calamities. Data for the paper was collected through secondary sources, including research papers and other collectable materials.

Issues for the Participation of the Republic of Belarus in the Institutional Mechanism for Combating International Cybercrime

The exponential growth of computer and digital technology in the 21st century creates broad opportunities for human societies, such as increased mobility, ease of communication, political participation and access to information. Yet it has also given rise to a new type of criminal activity, broadly defi ned as cybercrime. The author considers the regional cooperation of law enforcement agencies in combating cybercrime via multilateral organisations such as the Collective Security Treaty Organization and the Commonwealth of Independent States. Several mechanisms of cooperation with the member states of these organisations are identifi ed. The author presents an argument for modernisation and harmonisation of the international legal frameworks for fi ghting organized crime and other forms of criminal activity aff ecting the member states. A case is also made for the establishment of the specialised unit in the structure of Coordination Bureau for Organised Crime Control in the Commonwealth of Independent States countries.

La pesca ilegal como desafío al Cono Sur

The situation of illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing in the countries of the Southern Cone affects not only that subregion but the entire hemisphere, the use of the Armed Forces, specifically the Armed Forces in mitigating it, can be a way to boost economic activity, and strengthening the collective security system. This article analyzes the phenomenon from the perspective of Multidimensional Security, referring to the characteristics of the phenomenon as a transnational organized crime. From a Political Economy for Defense and Security approach, it is observed how illegal fishing is presented as an opportunity cost dilemma for governments. However, the cooperative effort in security and defense against illegal fishing requires the Inter-American System of International Relations to strengthen the agreements and achieve a collective commitment to combat this scourge. Demonstrated the effect that the collective employment of the Armed Forces can cause. It is concluded that fighting illegal fishing that the potential benefits are to impact on the entire hemisphere.

Synthetic Dimensions of the Potential of the Western Ukrainian People’s Republic

The article analyzes the specifics of synthetic measurements of state potential on the example of the Western Ukrainian People's Republic (WUPR). The author of the study suggests that modeling the potential of the Western Ukrainian People’s Republic will enable modern historiography of the Ukrainian Revolution of 1914–1923 to elucidate the morphology of state power by elucidating the nature of political power, the functioning of the state body, its strategic goals, etc. in its western Ukrainian segment. The main research models of Western scientists of the second half of the 20 – early 21th centuries are clarified on identifying the strengths and weaknesses of the state’s potential, in particular in the field of international relations: Clifford Herman, Wilhelm Fucks, Ray Klein and Ahmet Davutoğlu. The potential of the WUPR is also considered on the basis of studying the models of gravity, stratification and escalation / de-escalation, which made it possible to clarify the WUPR’s place in the system of international relations and collective security of the early 20th century. It is established that the model of gravity in the case of Western Ukraine diplomacy, in particular during its emigration period, can only partially indicate a certain cultural and / or ideological influence on the balance of international relations, and the “gravitational field” of Western Ukraine was in postwar Europe. An important feature of the stratification model is the prestige of the WUPR in the international arena, which has become the only and common interest of the united Ukrainian People’s Republic. The model of escalation / de-escalation in the realities of Western Ukraine shows that this Ukrainian state and foreign policy activity in the coordinate system of contemporary international relations was located between two points – between absolute peace and absolute war – in the context of the Polish-Ukrainian war of 1918–1919 for Eastern Galicia. According to the author, the most logical in relation to the imagined model of the potential of the WUPR was the escalation from the point of view of the stronger side (Poles), in particular in view of the escalation of armaments. It acted in conditions of asymmetric imbalance: the weaker side (Ukrainians) shifted the “difficulty” of escalation to ideological and moral-ideological problems.

New Trends in the Domestic and Foreign Policies of Putin’s Russia in Early 21st Century (Part 2)

The article is a continuation of the publication from the previous issue of the journal. In the previous part, the main focus was on Russia's domestic political and economic transformation during Vladimir Putin's first presidential term, which clearly shows a refusal from Yeltsin's limited democracy and the establishment of an authoritarian regime with Praetorian features. During his first years as president, Vladimir Putin demonstrated that, contrary to the commitments made by Boris Yeltsin's team at the OSCE Istanbul Summit, he did not intend to reduce Russia's military presence in the post-Soviet space. Conversely, the official Kremlin has intensified diplomatic efforts, which have resulted in an increase in the number of its military bases in the countries of the so-called «Near Abroad». At the same time, steps were taken to demonstrate the growing potential and ambitions of the Russian army. The corresponding activity was accompanied by purposeful actions aimed at building a modern Soviet Union around Russia. To achieve this goal, a wide range of tools was used, ranging from official statements to Moscow-initiated integration projects. The practical consequences of the respective aspirations of the new leadership of the Russian Federation were the signing of agreements on the establishment of the EurAsEC, the Common Economic Space, and the reformatting of the Collective Security Treaty into the CSTO. Analysis of internal and external initiatives of the new leadership of Russia in the period outlined in the article, in comparison with the statements of authoritative researchers, provide grounds to conclude that the construction of an authoritarian regime in the Russian Federation was accompanied by pro-Western rhetoric of its leadership due to the internal weakness of the Russian state in the early XXI century. After Russia’s significant economic growth, complemented by the introduction of comprehensive control within the country by the Kremlin, Vladimir Putin began to gradually abandon the disguise of the true nature of his regime, which soon was manifested through the prism of both tough statements and aggressive steps in the international arena.

Imaginaries of omniscience: Automating intelligence in the US Department of Defense.

The current reanimation of artificial intelligence includes a resurgence of investment in automating military intelligence on the part of the US Department of Defense. A series of programs set forth a technopolitical imaginary of fully integrated, comprehensive and real-time 'situational awareness' across US theaters of operation. Locating this imaginary within the history of 'closed world' discourse, I offer a critical reading of dominant scholarship within military circles that sets out the military's cybernetic model of situational awareness in the form of the widely referenced Observe, Orient, Decide, Act or OODA Loop. I argue that the loop's promise of dynamic homeostasis is held in place by the enduring premise of objectivist knowledge, enabled through a war apparatus that treats the contingencies and ambiguities of relations on the ground as noise from which a stable and unambiguous signal can be extracted. In contrast, recent challenges to the closed-world imaginary, based on critical scholarship and investigative journalism, suggest that the aspiration to closure is an engine for the continued destructiveness of US interventions and the associated regeneration of enmity. To challenge these technopolitics of violence we need a radically different kind of situational awareness, one that recognizes the place of ignorance in perpetuating the project of militarism. Only that kind of awareness can inform the public debate required to re-envision a future place for the US in the world, founded in alternative investments in demilitarization and commitments to our collective security.

The Problem of Incongruities in Understandings of the Spirit of UN Institutional Efforts in the Field of Maintaining and Restoring International Peace and Security

This article is devoted to the problem of the political and legal substantiation of the actions of state authorities to determine and declare the need for various forms of “peace operations” in the framework of the common interests of the international community and the common goals of international and collective security systems for other participants in international communication.Aim. Eliminate methodological problems in defining the content of terms “peacebuilding”, “peacekeeping (peace enforcement)” while institutionalizing the use of force within the framework of universal and regional agreements in the field of security.tasks. Formulate the lines of reasoning for the actions of state authorities in the field of political and legal substantiation of the use of national armed formations outside the national territory to solve the problems of maintaining and restoring international peace and security.Methodology. In the course of the study, the author turned to resolutions and transcriptsof meetings and other documents of the Security Council and the UN General Assembly, international normative legal acts, model acts of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Collective Security Treaty Organization and the Interparliamentary Assembly of CIS member states. To draw conclusions, a search for facts and objective connections between them was carried out to confirm that the modern practice of states is carried out in accordance with the ideals underlying the modern system of ensuring international security, built around the UN paradigm, which in turn is aimed at protecting human dignity and deliverance from the scourge of war.results. The use of armed force is often a necessary condition both for maintaining peace and for preventing the outbreak, escalation, continuation and renewal of conflicts. Preservation of peace in a broad sense should be interpreted as a goal and as a process of forming a common vision of the international community based on the needs of all actors. However, many problems of political mobilization of both national and international communities are generated by incongruities in understanding the content of a number of basic concepts that shape the interaction of states and circulate in public discourse. That is, the improvement of the “language” in which the main international actors conduct discourse in the field of ensuring international security is an objective necessity for the development of a modern theoretical and methodological base for the process of legitimization of political decisions by government authorities.Conclusions. To ensure the coordination of the wills of the participants in international communication, decisions of state authorities to take action on the use of force outside the national territory to protect common interests should be based on a unified interpretation of the content of the concepts of “peacebuilding”, “peacekeeping (peace enforcement)” as a “fair use of force” in order to be uniformly acceptable for various political regimes and correspond to the national-cultural, religious and other traditions of different peoples.

ابعاد اعتبار اهوار العراق محمية دولية

The research is in the international dimensions of considering the marshes of Iraq an international protectorate. It is summarized in finding answers to a set of questions that are embodied in the nature of the Iraqi marshes as an international reserve on the one hand, and what distinguishes the international reserve from other legal systems. Finally the dimensions that result from considering it an international reserve within the World Heritage List. There are those who say that the term international protection appeared in the modern era, which requires a statement of the legislative basis for regulating protection for this internationally important phenomenon on the one hand; And nationally, through the statement of the legislative basis at the internal level in Iraq on the other hand, and then a statement of the conditions that must be met in the selection of the water body on the third hand. Where protection exists means preserving the existing by resorting to legitimate methods The protection of water bodies is not only a necessary condition for protecting the environment, but it is one of the basic keys to food security and all types of collective security such as health, economic and social or human development in general. We have decided in this research to show the importance that the Iraqi Marshes enjoy historically, nationally and internationally, which constituted a certain fact that imposes itself and strongly because it is considered an international protectorate, then logically that it entails international dimensions on the one hand and governmental and international obligations alike on the other hand, for this important international consideration that was not It comes out of nowhere. The marshes of Iraq have been lofty and ancient since the dawn of the first civilizations. Finally, the end did not end with the study of these dimensions; Rather, we are certain that there are certain challenges faced by the marshes in Iraq, which made us discuss them as well, and God bless.

The effects of IMF loan conditions on poverty in the developing world

Although the International Monetary Fund (IMF) claims that poverty reduction is one of its objectives, some studies show that IMF borrower countries experience higher rates of poverty. This paper investigates the effects of IMF loan conditions on poverty. Using a sample of 81 developing countries from 1986 to 2016, we find that IMF loan arrangements containing structural reforms contribute to more people getting trapped in the poverty cycle, as the reforms involve deep and comprehensive changes that tend to raise unemployment, lower government revenue, increase costs of basic services, and restructure tax collection, pensions, and social security programmes. Conversely, we observe that loan arrangements promoting stabilisation reforms have less impact on the poor because borrower states hold more discretion over their macroeconomic targets. Further, we disaggregate structural reforms to identify the particular policies that increase poverty. Our findings are robust to different specifications and indicate how IMF loan arrangements affect poverty in the developing world.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1057/s41268-022-00263-1.

Loneliness in elderly in the covid-19 pandemic

IntroductionLoneliness and social isolation condition the health of those over 65 years of age, increasing morbidity and mortality. The pandemic caused by Covid-19 has been a health emergency in which the negative effects have been increased by loneliness. We can define several types of loneliness: physical loneliness, moral loneliness and social isolation.ObjectivesThe objective was to analyze the impact of Covid-19 on the feeling of loneliness in those over 65 years of age during the last year of the pandemic.MethodsA bibliographic search was carried out in Pubmed with the terms “loneliness in elderly in the covid-19 pandemic” with the filters “abstract” and “in the last 1 year”, selecting the studies whose title included the terms “loneliness”, “elderly” or “older people” and “Covid-19 ” or “SARS-Cov-2”. The search gave rise to 13 results, of which the content of the abstracts was qualitatively analyzed.ResultsAll studies found an increase in loneliness in the elderly, and more than 50% reported a decrease in this feeling in the elderly trained in new technologies. Other aspects that stood out to influence were comorbidity, resilience, economic situation, social support and subjective feeling of vulnerability.ConclusionsOlder adults avoid direct social contact to protect themselves. This may result in loneliness, that can have serious consequences in terms of morbidity and mortality. To mitigate loneliness they can use online social media, but older adults need to be trained. Institutions and public powers have the obligation to ensure individual and collective security, and protect the integrity of people from dangers.DisclosureNo significant relationships.

Conservation and utilization on Sawahlunto ex mining area for cultural landscape

As a UNESCO World Heritage, Sawahlunto Ex Coal Mining has the profound and lasting impact of the industrialization and social changing relations which has built the history remarkable as per today. To facilitate public on having mindful memories of the place, an interpretation of evidence and information need to emerge with a suitable flow and approach. Discover perspectives and improving interpretation on conservation area which has changing gradually because the community impact has always been a degrading issue. We often ignore the neighborhoods needs to commercial purpose. The historic district assessed by analysis and qualitative research method from the past and present documentation through site inventory and relevant studies of the living culture. The aim of this paper is to bring better conservation strategies that can enhance the overall cultural image of Sawahlunto. Collective memory, habit changing, site management, and material security supposed to be co-habitant through times. In order to keep the familiarization and to be a place of original community can be secure, content, and proud of.

Voyage of Ben Cao, Part II: Development of Chinese Medicinal Specimens in the British Museum

Voyage of Ben Cao, Part II: Development of Chinese Medicinal Specimens in the British Museum

Studies and Proposals for the Development and Use of the Romanian Merchant Fleet during Peacetime and Wartime (1938-1940)

"After becoming an independent state, which was followed by the return of Dobruja to the Romanian state, Romania became a littoral country. Therefore, the need arose to create, along with the Danube merchant fleet, a maritime one, with state and private capital, to contribute to the country’s budget, by transporting goods not only for domestic needs but also for the needs of other countries or companies. At the same time, it was considered necessary to build a military naval and river fleet to defend the Danube and the Black Sea, which proved useful during the National Reunification War (1916-1920), as well as to provide support for the collective security system existing in the 1930s (Romanian-Polish, Little Entente and Balkan Pact). The development of the state merchant navy in Romania dates back to 1895, when Grigore Manu was given the task of organising a maritime navigation service, an action that got materialised in a law adopted on 7/19 June 1888. The first voyage of a ship operated by the Romanian Maritime Service took place on 14/26 August 1895, when “Medeea” left Brăila for Istanbul, carrying 25 passengers and 600 tons of cargo. A few days later, on 26 August/8 September, “Meteor” made the first voyage with the same destination. Starting on 14/26 September it was to operate regular passenger transport services between Constanța and Istanbul (Ghica, 1939, pp. 149-150; Sambra, Historia)."

Studii și propuneri pentru dezvoltarea și întrebuințarea flotei comerciale maritime române în timp de pace și război (1938-1940)

"After becoming an independent state, which was followed by the return of Dobruja to the Romanian state, Romania became a littoral country. Therefore, the need arose to create, along with the Danube merchant fleet, a maritime one, with state and private capital, to contribute to the country’s budget, by transporting goods not only for domestic needs but also for the needs of other countries or companies. At the same time, it was considered necessary to build a military naval and river fleet to defend the Danube and the Black Sea, which proved useful during the National Reunification War (1916-1920), as well as to provide support for the collective security system existing in the 1930s (Romanian-Polish, Little Entente and Balkan Pact). The development of the state merchant navy in Romania dates back to 1895, when Grigore Manu was given the task of organising a maritime navigation service, an action that got materialised in a law adopted on 7/19 June 1888. The first voyage of a ship operated by the Romanian Maritime Service took place on 14/26 August 1895, when “Medeea” left Brăila for Istanbul, carrying 25 passengers and 600 tons of cargo. A few days later, on 26 August/8 September, “Meteor” made the first voyage with the same destination. Starting on 14/26 September it was to operate regular passenger transport services between Constanța and Istanbul (Ghica, 1939, pp. 149-150; Sambra, Historia)."

Understanding of democracy and peace Gershon H.Gordon Faculty of Social Sciences, Tel Aviv University

One of the great changes in the world situation after World War II was the long period of peace without war between democracies and even great powers. However, the world is not easy in the halo of peace. The smoke of local wars such as the Iraq war has not yet dissipated, and frequent terrorist groups is worrying. In Asia, Japan's military influence, which is second only to the United States, cannot be underestimated. Its defense strategy changes from specialized defense to outward defense. This situation brings a new threat to the security of all countries in the Asia-Pacific region. The problem of the "security dilemma" remains one of the major issues in international politics today. In this regard, realism puts forward the theory of potential equalization and deterrence, while liberalism puts forward the theory of world government, collective security, economic interdependence, and democratic peace. Among them, democratic peace theory, as a popular theory in the field of western international relations research, has aroused wide controversy in the academic circles. "Democratic peace theory" believes that there is no or little war between democratic countries, and "non-democratic countries" are the root cause of war, and expanding democracy is the inevitable requirement for maintaining peace. "Democratic peace theory" does not conform with historical facts, it is the theoretical basis for neo-interventionism in promoting human rights diplomacy. The relationship between democracy and peace is complex: peace between international society and international relations requires not only a domestic democracy, but also in international life; democracy is only one of the many reasons affecting international peace, It has limited impact on peace; the "democracy peace theory" advocates established peace is essentially local peace between western countries based on unreasonable international political and economic order, the consolidation of overall world peace and the establishment of just and reasonable new international order call for new democracy.

Zero-Trust-Based Protection Scheme for Users in Internet of Vehicles

At present, the Internet of Vehicles technology is developing rapidly, but in the process of networking it may be attacked by hackers. In view of the tampering attack on the user’s device and identity, we establish a multifactor authentication scheme to achieve dual identity authentication through device fingerprint authentication and PKI authentication. In response to the attack by hackers in the application of data transmission, we use the SM series of state secret algorithms for data encryption and take advantage of the immutable and decentralized characteristics of blockchain to ensure the security and integrity of data collection and transmission. Through the zero-trust security network architecture, the security level of the system in the process of data transmission is effectively improved, the identity-centered dynamic access control is carried out, the user’s behavior is monitored in real time, and the malicious nodes are screened and eliminated, which improves the stability and security of the Internet of Vehicles data transmission system. By adopting the identity authentication pass rate, fingerprint authentication pass rate, API authentication pass rate, and SPA packet transmission acceptance rate as the factor set, the evaluation level of the vehicles is calculated. The experimental results show that compared with the traditional boundary-centered security protection, our scheme can protect a wider range of application security, even if there are security problems, the loss is less. Through the training simulation of the convolutional neural network, the classification accuracy of the trust level is improved.

КОНСТИТУЦІЙНО-ПРАВОВІ АСПЕКТИ ЗОВНІШНІХ ФУНКЦІЇЙ УКРАЇНИ ТА УГОРЩИНИ ПІД ТЕОРЕТИКО-ПРАВОВОЮ ПРИЗМОЮ

The modern globalized world needs the creation of a new type of international relations. The state cannot exist by itself, for its successful development it is necessary to actively cooperate with the international community. These are permanent good-neighborly relations, cooperation with leading democratic countries, and participation and active activity in universal and regional international organizations. This is required from the state, the medium type, and the existence of external threats, such as armed aggression, information wars, economic blockades by other states. The latest type of international relations, considering such factors as globalization, the transformation of modern society from post- industrial to information society, brings significant changes to the interaction of various types of external state activity. In the theory of the state and law, the functions of the state are classified according to the following criteria: according to the quintessence and tasks, according to the direction of the functions, according to the methods and means of their implementation, according to the spheres of state activity, according to the social weight of the functions, according to their time frames, etc. Recognizing that each of these scientific classifications has the right to exist, we support the opinion of those scientists who refer to such a classification the division of state functions by spheres of activity of the latter into internal and external functions of the state. Take for example the defense function of the state, which directly depends on its integration into the collective security system. Functions of the state are formalized tasks of activity for a specific period, of a specific state in the sphere of regulation of social relations, in particular, of an external nature, using methods not prohibited by national and international law in order to achieve the most advantageous positions of influence. The following sub-functions of the syncretic external function of the modern state are distinguished: foreign policy (diplomatic); defense of the state against external military aggression; foreign economic; establishment of international humanitarian relations; environmental or ecological (participation in international environmental protection); countering international terrorism and international organized crime. Within the scope of this article, we consider Ukrainian foreign policy (diplomatic), foreign economic and establishment of international humanitarian ties.

Contradictions of Collective Security Model: Modern Historiography on the Evolution of the Versailles System of International Relations in the 1930s

The article attempts to find out the reasons for the failure of the collective security system in Europe, developed to counter German revisionism in the second half of the 1920s – early 1930s. Research literature tends to consider collective security not just as a diplomatic tool, but as a quality of international system developed after the First World War based on the idea of indivisible security with universal international organization presiding over it to deal with problems of war and peace. The principle of the balance of power and war itself as a means of international politics thus lost their legitimacy.Historians agree that the system proved unsuitable for the challenges of the early 1930s, demonstrated by the Ethiopian War and the Rhineland Crisis. Two alternative ways eventually developed to deal with the inconsistences of the early collective security system: «appeasement» project, initiated by British diplomacy; and the Soviet idea of military-political deterrence through coalition building. Modern historiography views «appeasement» as the idea presupposing the creation of a European Directory, which would have taken on the functions of resolving international contradictions. Historians see the reasons for its failure in an incorrect assessment of Hitler's policy due to thinking in the spirit of collective security. The position of the USSR is more contested among historians. In recent works, however, there appears the consensus that the reason for the failure of the project of a military-political alliance aimed at containing Germany was the unwillingness of the West to strategic interaction with Moscow and its adherence to the principles of «new diplomacy» at a time when it already lost their relevance.

Regulating the Use of Force in International Law: Stability and Change. By Russell Buchan and Nicholas Tsagourias

Dr Buchan and Professor Tsagourias have added a new monograph on the use of force to the long list of publications on this topic. The book combines coverage of the usual topics on this subject—including the prohibition of the use of force, the right of self-defence, the UN collective security system and humanitarian intervention—alongside some topics not usually covered in a work on the jus ad bellum. These include the role of non-state actors within the law regulating the use of force, the law on ‘cyber warfare’, the role of law and morality, and UN peacekeeping operations. The authors bring their own considerable expertise and experience in teaching and publishing on topics covered and related to the those in the book. There is no need to argue the relevance of the topic itself, as any glance at the news media will confirm, with numerous armed conflicts ongoing and others brewing and capable of erupting at relatively short notice. Likewise, the controversies on various issues, ranging from permissible reactions to humanitarian crises to the applicability of the law relating to the use of force to new threats and technologies continue to fuel debate within the disciplines of international law and relations. As such it is to be welcomed that two authors with an established reputation within the field should add their contribution to the debates on these issues.