Collection Tree Protocol Research Articles

Performance Study of Collection Tree Protocol in Mobile Wireless Sensor Network

The Mobile Wireless Sensor Networks (MWSN) are defined as the successor of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN); geographically distributed autonomous mobile sensors for physical and environmental conditions monitoring. Mobile sensor networks are more flexible than static sensor networks as they can cope with rapid topology changes. Sensor networks are deployed by having their sensors collect information reliably and then relay the sensor readings to a central base station using wireless multi-hop transmission. Multi-hop routes within a rapid-changed topology requires a routing protocol that can adapt to network changes with an efficient communication mechanism among the nodes; to comply with the energy-constraint nature of the wireless sensor networks. Through significant simulation on this study using the AVRora simulator, the Collection Tree Protocol’s (CTP) capacity to respond to MWSN’s changing network topology was assessed by analysing the performance indicators; specifically, the average of packet loss and energy use of mobile nodes with different circumstances considering varied quantities of mobile nodes in the simulation region, with different velocities and network density. In several circumstances, the implementation of CTP in MWSN indicates a rise in energy usage because of broken linkages along with regular tree regeneration brought on by node mobility.

Enhancing Cyber-Physical Systems Dependability through Integrated CPS-IoT Monitoring

This abstract investigates the convergence of collection tree protocols, cyber-physical systems (CPS), dependability, epidemic modelling, the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR), and the Internet of Things (IoT). Our research focuses on improving the dependability of Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS) by examining the incorporation of Internet of Things (IoT) monitoring and collecting tree protocols. The objective of the study is to develop a strong framework for collecting and analysing data in real-time. This will be done by using epidemic modelling to forecast and avoid system breakdowns. Within the framework of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, the study focuses on highlighting adaptive and fault-tolerant designs for Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS). By integrating these technologies, we tackle issues related to the reliability of systems, providing valuable knowledge on flexible adjustment, robustness, and uniform communication protocols. This book makes a valuable contribution to the changing field of Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS), providing a comprehensive methodology that is in line with the revolutionary possibilities of the Fourth Industrial Revolution

Comparative Study of Routing Protocols for IoT Networks

Abstract: The Internet of things (IoT) is widely used for communication between portable and intelligent heterogeneous devices, like laptops, smartphones, computers, etc. IoT networks are popular in the modern era because they allow data to be exchanged anywhere when connected to the internet. IoT networks have several challenges, including those related to routing, connectivity, privacy, security, and other issues. The major challenge is routing in terms of choosing the best route for sharing data in IoT networks; IoT routing algorithms use more time and energy. In this paper, we review relevent literature and patents and also various routing approaches are categorized into groups, like multicast, clustering, emergency application, traffic, location, tree, and residual energy based approach, and they are compared based on several parameters, like energy consumption, network lifetime, path length, packet delivery ratio, and network latency. In terms of performance metrics, like energy consumption, network lifetime, reliability, efficiency, and packet delivery ratio, the comparison shows that Routing Protocol for Low Power and Lossy Networks (RPL), Efficient Tree-based Self-organizing Protocol (ETSP), Collection Tree Protocol (CTP), and Fast Multi-constrained Multicast Routing Algorithms (FAMOUS) are the best protocols. The best approach is a tree-based one since it solves the larger problem in the hierarchy with the least amount of time complexity.

An Investigation of CTP Use for Wireless Structural Health Monitoring of Infrastructure

Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) is a very important research domain whereby civil infrastructure is monitored. Using wireless technologies can boost SHM by providing the level of autonomous operation that is essential for these tasks. Wireless routing, with its subset, geographic routing, is an important procedure that needs to be optimised, in order to lead packets to the basestation. Occasionally, routing is susceptible to interference and collisions due to a large number of connected devices. This fact led to cooperative transmission; cooperative networks are the ones that utilise relays to accomplish the transmission of packets; thus, resulting in link quality as well as throughput increase. In this paper, we investigate the Collection Tree Protocol (CTP) to show that it can be cooperative when used in an SHM for civil infrastructure monitoring applications giving a geographical essence to the routing protocol. We do that by exploiting the fact that the CTP’s mechanism uses its tree formation for a node to transmit to the best link quality parents. An example of a cooperative model to show that it may be applied to the protocol is given. Further, Indriya testbed results of direct and cooperative transmissions are given to strengthen the case of this work, with which a scenario where the CTP exhibits better link quality when using a relay is given. A practical addition is suggested, whereby an extra field in the packet struct is proposed, which will provide the CTP with further strength to changing conditions and direct communication loss.

A Multiple Data Collection Tree Protocol for UWSNs

We propose a new efficient and robust routing protocol for underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) called the Multiple Data Collection Tree (MDCT) protocol. MDCT proactively constructs and maintains multiple node-disjoint shortest-path routing trees connecting the underwater sensor nodes to onshore sink nodes. These trees provide readily available paths for routing data packets from underwater sensor nodes to surface sink nodes. Using multiple trees improves reliability, reduces congestion (especially at near-root nodes), and shortens routing paths. It also balances energy consumption by distributing the packet-forwarding load over a larger number of nodes. MDCT updates the trees continuously in response to changing underwater conditions such as sensor movements (due to underwater currents) and sensor out-of-power failures. We prove formally the correctness and optimality of the constructed trees. We also show how MDCT outperforms other protocols (namely, VBF, ERGR-EMHC and DCTP) in terms of packet delivery ratio, average end-to-end delay and energy consumption via extensive simulation. For example, compared to VBF, MDCT has increased the delivery ratio by over 75%, has reduced the average end-to-end delay by nearly 60%, and has reduced the energy consumption by 25% in some tested scenarios.

Cyber‐physical network architecture for data stream provisioning in complex ecosystems

AbstractIntelligent fog cyber‐physical social systems (iFog CPSS) is a novel smart city project that uses intrinsic processes to automate microservices such as edge‐to‐fog or fog‐to‐cloud monitoring of complex real‐time activities. This article presents a dynamic cyber‐physical architecture that leverages iFog layers to map location‐based services (LBS) on a spine‐leaf datacenter clos topology. Individual edge clusters are connected to the edge‐fog layer, which communicates with iFog gateways for processing streams' requests. Use‐case application of artificial intelligence (AI) in vehicular ad‐hoc networks (VANETs) is introduced for data stream provisioning. In the validation study, a secure docker‐based iFog CPS experiment is carried out using traffic trace files from C++ modeller. iFog spine‐leaf architecture for fog‐computing and cloud‐computing are compared using two key metrics. For traffic workload utilization, the results show that 83.33% of the traffic workload is utilized at the Fog layer while 16.67% is consumed in the cloud layer. For latency profile, the results indicate that Fog and cloud streams had 20.31% and 77.69%, respectively. In terms of iFog VANET spine‐leaf congestion control, three distinct algorithms are studied, namely the proposed linear routing algorithm (LRA), LEACH, and collection tree protocol (CTP). In each case, the resource utilization for VANET gave 34.45%, 32.18%, and 33.37%, respectively. Latency response gave 11.76%, 82.35%, and 5.89%, respectively. Also, the throughput scenario offered 19.61%, 39.22%, and 41.17%, respectively. Consequently, the iFog scenario offers satisfactory LBS provisioning for VANETs clusters.

ASRPH: Application Specific Routing Protocol for Health care

While proceeding towards the age of Internet of Things (IoT), Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) is going to play an indispensable role in the overall networking architecture. Applications like health care, smart-city etc. are extensively using WSN frameworks to collect and analyse real-time data along with taking necessary actions based on the application’s requirements. While designing the routing protocol for WSN, the uniqueness and requirements of the application have the potential to play a dominant role. Generalizing the networking framework while ignoring application-specific requirements would lead towards designing an inefficient routing protocol. Considering these scenarios, we have proposed an application-specific routing protocol for the health care which would ensure the increase in network lifetime while maintaining the maximum throughput in data transmission. The proposed routing protocol has shown an improved performance in terms of metrics like throughput, network lifetime, end to end delay, packet delivery ratio and packet loss while comparing with some of the traditional routing protocols e.g. Routing Protocol for Low-Power and Lossy Networks and Collection Tree Protocol.

A Hybrid Reliable Routing Algorithm Based on LQI and PRR in Industrial Wireless Networks

In Industrial Wireless Networks (IWNs), the communication through Machine‐to‐Machine (M2M) is often affected by the noise in the industrial environment, which leads to the decline of communication reliability. In this paper, we investigate how to improve route stability through M2M in an industrial environment. We first compare different link quality estimations, such as Signal‐Noise Ratio (SNR), Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI), Link Quality Indicator (LQI), Packet Reception Ratio (PRR), and Expected Transmission Count (ETX). We then propose a link quality estimation combining LQI and PRR. Finally, we propose a Hybrid Link Quality Estimation‐Based Reliable Routing (HLQEBRR) algorithm for IWNs, with the object of maximizing link stability. In addition, HLQEBRR provides a recovery mechanism to detect node failure, which improves the speed and accuracy of node recovery. OMNeT++‐based simulation results demonstrate that our HLQEBRR algorithm significantly outperforms the Collection Tree Protocol (CTP) algorithm in terms of end‐to‐end transmission delay and packet loss ratio, and the HLQEBRR algorithm achieves higher reliability at a small additional cost.

An Efficient Data Collection Protocol for Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks

This paper presents the design and evaluation of a new data collection protocol for Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks called the Data Collection Tree Protocol (DCTP). It uses an efficient distributed algorithm to proactively construct and maintain a data collection tree rooted at the sink node. The preconstructed and maintained data collection tree allows the efficient selection of a single forwarding node at each hop when routing a data packet. We prove the correctness of the constructed data collection tree and we show that under some stability conditions, the constructed tree converges to an optimal shortestpath tree. Results of extensive simulations show a big improvement in terms of packet delivery ratio, endto-end delay and energy consumption compared to the well-known VBF protocol. The simulated cases show increases in the packet delivery ratio between 20% and 122%, reductions in the average end-to-enddelay between 15% and 55% and reductions in the energy consumption between 20% and 50%. These results clearly demonstrate the attractiveness of the proposed DCTP protocol.

Solar-CTP: An Enhanced CTP for Solar-Powered Wireless Sensor Networks

Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) suffer not only from short lifetimes because of limited energy but also from an energy imbalance between the nodes close to the sink and the other nodes. To fundamentally resolve the issue of short lifetimes, recent studies have utilized environmental energy, such as solar power. Additionally, WSNs that employ energy-aware dynamic topology control are also being studied to address the energy imbalance. This paper proposes an improved collection tree protocol (CTP) scheme, called solar-CTP, that uses the two approaches of energy-harvesting and energy-aware topology control simultaneously. The proposed scheme is derived from the CTP scheme, which is a widely adopted data collection strategy designed for typical battery-based WSNs with a fixed sink. We tailor the CTP scheme for solar-powered WSNs operating with a mobile sink. Performance verification confirms that our scheme significantly reduces the number of blackout nodes compared to other CTP variants, thus increasing the amount of data collected by the sink.

Downward traffic retransmission mechanism for improving reliability in RPL environment supporting mobility

With the diversification of industrial Internet of Things applications, there is a growing demand for mobility support in industrial wireless networking environments. However, the routing protocol for low-power and lossy networks is designed based on a static environment and is vulnerable in a mobility environment. Routing protocol for low-power and lossy networks is an Internet engineering task force standard in the low-power and lossy network environments used mainly in industrial environments. In addition, although routing protocol for low-power and lossy networks is based on collection tree protocol and is suitable for data collection and upward traffic transmission, it struggles with downward traffic transmission in terms of control, actuation, and end-to-end transmission. In this article, the problems caused by mobile nodes in routing protocol for low-power and lossy networks are discussed, and a retransmission scheme named IM-RPL is proposed. This retransmission scheme can improve the performance of downward traffic for the mobile nodes by retransmitting the packets to the neighbor nodes, the mobile node’s new parent sets, and relaying them to the mobile node. Its performance is evaluated through an experiment. The results demonstrate that using OpenMote in OpenWSN’s time slotted channel hopping induces a packet reception ratio improvement and a lower transmission delay as compared to standard routing protocol for low power and lossy.

Security cooperation model based on topology control and time synchronization for wireless sensor networks

To address malicious attacks generated from wireless sensor networks (WSNs), in this paper, we study the difficulty of detecting uncoordinated behavior by using a model that is unreliable and has uncontrollable accuracy, trustless control, and an inextensible protocol. A security collaboration model involving coupled state vectors associated with topology control and time synchronization is proposed. The networks achieve synchronization using weights and by controlling the number of goals. The simple calculation of time synchronization values between neighboring nodes serves as the basis for judging the behavior of the node topology control. The coupling state vector calculation is the core of the model. The topology coupling strength rate, signal intensity reduction, clock drift, and clock delay are combined to form a comprehensive model. The network energy consumption is reduced by updating the coupling state vector regularly. The coupling cooperation threshold is set to make security decisions and effectively distinguish between attack nodes and dead nodes. Thus, to ensure the security and reliability of the network, we present a security cooperation collection tree protocol (SC-CTP) scheme that maintains a trusted environment and isolates misbehaving nodes. The simulation results show that the model can detect malicious nodes effectively, has a high detection rate, and greatly reduces the energy consumption of the whole network. In order to verify the effectiveness of the proposed model, a large-scale wireless sensor network with 200 nodes was deployed on a campus. The proposed model was applied to optimize the deployment of key nodes on the campus. Furthermore, a candidate set of these nodes were selected to achieve coupling cooperation of key goals. This test verified the reliability of the model, its customizable accuracy, and the reliability of the control.

One-Hop Out-of-Band Control Planes for Multi-Hop Wireless Sensor Networks

Separation of Control and Data Planes (SCDP) is a desirable paradigm for low-power multi-hop wireless sensor networks requiring high network performance and manageability. Existing SCDP networks generally adopt an in-band control plane scheme in that the control-plane messages are delivered by their data-plane networks. The physical coupling of the two planes may lead to undesirable consequences. Recently, multi-radio platforms (e.g., TI CC1350 and OpenMote B) are increasingly available, which make the physical separation of the control and data planes possible. To advance the network architecture design, we propose to leverage on the long-range communication capability of the Low-Power Wide-Area Network (LPWAN) radios to form one-hop out-of-band control planes. LoRaWAN, an open, inexpensive, and ISM band based LPWAN radio, is chosen to prototype our out-of-band control plane called LoRaCP. Several characteristics of LoRaWAN such as downlink-uplink asymmetry and primitive ALOHA media access control need to be dealt with to achieve high reliability and efficiency. To address these challenges, a TDMA-based multi-channel transmission control is designed, which features an urgent channel and negative acknowledgment. On a testbed of 16 nodes, LoRaCP is applied to physically separate the control-plane network of the Collection Tree Protocol (CTP) from its Zigbee-based data-plane network. Extensive experiments show that LoRaCP increases CTP’s packet delivery ratio from 65% to 80% in the presence of external interference, while consuming a per-node average radio power of 2.97mW only.

A Multi-Layer Self-Healing Algorithm for WSNs

The implementation of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) is a challenging task due to their intrinsic characteristics, e.g., energy limitations and unreliable wireless links. Considering this, we have developed the Disjoint path And Clustering Algorithm (DACA) that combines topology control and self-healing mechanisms to increase the network lifetime with minimum loss of coverage. Initially, DACA constructs a tree that includes all nodes of the network by using the Collection Tree Protocol (CTP). This tree is an initial communication backbone through which DACA centralizes the information. Then, DACA builds a set of spatial clusters using Kmeans and selects the Cluster Heads (CHs) using Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) and a multi-objective optimization (MOO) function. Subsequently, DACA reconstructs the tree using only the CHs. In this way, DACA reduces the number of active nodes in the network and saves energy. Finally, DACA finds disjoint paths on the reconstructed tree by executing the N-to-1 multipath discovery protocol. By doing so, the network can overcome communications failures with a low control message overhead. The simulations on Castalia show that DACA considerably extends the network lifetime by having a set of inactive nodes and disjoint paths that support the communication when active nodes die. Besides, DACA still maintains a good coverage of the area of interest despite the inactive nodes. Additionally, we evaluate the shape of the tree (i.e., the average number of hops) and the risk of connection loss of the network.

Research on data privacy protection algorithm with homomorphism mechanism based on redundant slice technology in wireless sensor networks

Wireless transmission method in wireless sensor networks has put forward higher requirements for private protection technology. According to the packet loss problem of private protection algorithm based on slice technology, this paper proposes the data private protection algorithm with redundancy mechanism, which ensures privacy by privacy homomorphism mechanism and guarantees redundancy by carrying hidden data. Moreover, it selects the routing tree generated by CTP (Collection Tree Protocol) as routing path for data transmission. By dividing at the source node, it adds the hidden information and also the privacy homomorphism. At the same time, the information feedback tree is established between the destination node and the source node. In addition, the destination node immediately sends the packet loss information and the encryption key via the information feedback tree to the source node. As a result, it improves the reliability and privacy of data transmission and ensures the data redundancy.

Fixed node assisted collection tree protocol for mobile wireless sensor networks

The collection tree protocol (CTP) is widely used in static wireless sensor network applications. With the increasing deployment of mobile WSNs, the performance of this scheme in mobile scenarios becomes extremely important. The motivation in using collection tree protocols over clustering and mobile ad hoc routing protocols is there simplicity resulting in reduced control packets but higher packet losses. We introduce the fixed node assisted-CTP (FNA-CTP) algorithm which aims to enhance the performance of CTP in mobile scenarios by tuning the parameters of CTP for the mobile and fixed nodes in order to reduce the messaging overhead required to maintain the network in mobile scenarios. We provide a detailed evaluation of the performance of FNA-CTP in different mobile sensor network scenarios through a set of simulations which indicates the superior performance of FNA-CTP and discuss various design issues associated with this scheme.

Fixed node assisted collection tree protocol for mobile wireless sensor networks

The collection tree protocol (CTP) is widely used in static wireless sensor network applications. With the increasing deployment of mobile WSNs, the performance of this scheme in mobile scenarios becomes extremely important. The motivation in using collection tree protocols over clustering and mobile ad hoc routing protocols is there simplicity resulting in reduced control packets but higher packet losses. We introduce the fixed node assisted-CTP (FNA-CTP) algorithm which aims to enhance the performance of CTP in mobile scenarios by tuning the parameters of CTP for the mobile and fixed nodes in order to reduce the messaging overhead required to maintain the network in mobile scenarios. We provide a detailed evaluation of the performance of FNA-CTP in different mobile sensor network scenarios through a set of simulations which indicates the superior performance of FNA-CTP and discuss various design issues associated with this scheme.

An Analysis of the Directional Preference ETX Measure for the Collection Tree Protocol in Mobile Sensor Networks

There has been a growing interest in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) that utilizes mobile nodes for various purposes. These mobile wireless sensor networks tend to suffer from constant link breakages mainly caused by connected nodes moving apart, often moving very quickly. These lost connections require WSNs to constantly repair the network connections; this constant maintenance in turn causes power and packet losses and very noisy network conditions. However a directional preference metric can be implemented in order to reduce the frequency and occurrence of lost links between a parent node and its child for mobile sensor networks. As such a directional ETX measure was developed for the Collection Tree Protocol (CTP) in order to create longer lasting links. This paper describes and measures the performance of this Directional Preference CTP (DP-CTP) routing protocol utilizing various metrics such as Packet Reception Ratio (PRR), average number of beacon transmissions per node and parent changes. A comparison based on PRR to other popular WSN algorithms such as Leach and Geographic Greedy Forwarding (GGF) is presented. Based on the PRR the DP-CTP algorithm improves the performance of CTP such that it is capable of outperforming Leach and GGF in various scenarios

WSN-EVP: A Novel Special Purpose Protocol for Emergency Vehicle Preemption Systems

Emergency Vehicle Preemption (EVP) systems play a key role in reprioritizing signalized traffic intersections. This role is important for safe and minimum travel delay of emergency vehicles (EV) passing through road intersections. Unfortunately, conventional systems that are currently in use on the roads have deficiencies in terms of cost, reliability, maintainability, and scalability. In this paper, a novel approach is proposed utilizing batteryless wireless sensor networks (WSNs) to overcome the above difficulties and improve the safety and mobility of emergency vehicles. A special purpose preemption protocol is designed based on the collection tree protocol (CTP) as a data collection service. The protocol is called WSN-EVP and is used to handle the EV preemption request in a multi-hop tree-based topology spread across the traffic intersection. The model functions according to predefined rules and optimized parameters to cope with the high topology changes and the fast response time requirement. A prototype implementation using TelosB motes programmed in nesC shows a performance of high preemption accuracy under high level of interference.

La-CTP: Loop-Aware Routing for Energy-Harvesting Wireless Sensor Networks.

In emerging energy-harvesting wireless sensor networks (EH-WSN), the sensor nodes can harvest environmental energy to drive their operation, releasing the user’s burden in terms of frequent battery replacement, and even enabling perpetual sensing systems. In EH-WSN applications, usually, the node in energy-harvesting or recharging state has to stop working until it completes the energy replenishment. However, such temporary departures of recharging nodes severely impact the packet routing, and one immediate result is the routing loop problem. Controlling loops in connectivity-intermittent EH-WSN in an efficient way is a big challenge in practice, and so far, users still lack of effective and practicable routing protocols with loop handling. Based on the Collection Tree Protocol (CTP) widely used in traditional wireless sensor networks, this paper proposes a loop-aware routing protocol for real-world EH-WSNs, called La-CTP, which involves a new parent updating metric and a proactive, adaptive beaconing scheme to effectively suppress the occurrence of loops and unlock unavoidable loops, respectively. We constructed a 100-node testbed to evaluate La-CTP, and the experimental results showed its efficacy and efficiency.