Coleus Blumei Research Articles

Identification of new plant hosts of 16SrII group phytoplasmas in Saudi Arabia

Qassim region is one of the main agricultural areas in Saudi Arabia. During 2015, ornamental, landscape and bindweed plants showing virescence; yellowing, phyllody, witches’ broom, proliferation, fasciation, short internode, and dieback symptoms were observed in this region. To confirm the presence of phytoplasmas, DNA extracted from symptomatic and asymptomatic plants was used to amplify 16S rRNA-encoding gene through direct and nested PCR assays using P1/P7, R16F2n/R16R2 and fU5/rU3 primers. Phytoplasma DNA was detected in all symptomatic plants collected. Sequencing and phylogenetic analysis were performed to identify the phytoplasmas detected. BLAST comparison indicated that the phytoplasmas showed more than 99.2% identity with phytoplasmas in 16SrII group. Three phytoplasma strains from Albizia and periwinkle shared 100% identity with ‘Candidatus Phytoplasma aurantifolia’, subgroup 16SrII-B, while phytoplasmas affecting Parkinsonia aculeate, Gazania rigens, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Calendula officinalis, Plectranthus scutellarioides, Convolvulus arvensis, Zinnia Magellan, Conocarpus lanceolatus and Catharanthus roseus were identical to papaya yellow crinkle, classified in the 16SrII-D subgroup.

Are We Growing Psychotropics in Our Backyards?

There have been very limited reports of the euphoria experienced under the influence of Coleus blumei--part of a large genus with similarities to various mints and herbs, naturally found in abundance and popular in home gardens. There have been reports of similar properties to Salvia divinorum, which contains the psychoactive neocleordane diterpene salvinorin-A. We present a case of a man in his twenties, with no significant known personal or family psychiatric history, presenting to an emergency room with a psychotic episode after the ingestion of C. blumei. He had chewed leaves of this plant, with the intention of obtaining a euphoric experience, as learned through social media posts. Comprehensive laboratory work-up drug screening and diagnostic imaging were negative. Vital signs were stable and physical examination was unremarkable. His mental status improved significantly after treatment with risperidone 2 mg twice daily, during a 5-day psychiatric hospitalization. This case draws attention to a potential psychotropic that warrants clinical consideration and further investigation.

Synthesis of rosmarinic acid analogues in Escherichia coli.

To produce rosmarinic acid analogues in the recombinant Escherichia coli BLRA1, harboring a 4-coumarate: CoA ligase from Arabidopsis thaliana (At4CL) and a rosmarinic acid synthase from Coleus blumei (CbRAS). Incubation of the recombinant E. coli strain BLRA1 with exogenously supplied phenyllactic acid (PL) and analogues as acceptor substrates, and coumaric acid and analogues as donor substrates led to production of 18 compounds, including 13 unnatural RA analogues. This work demonstrates the viability of synthesizing a broad range of rosmarinic acid analogues in E. coli, and sheds new light on the substrate specificity of CbRAS.

Rooting Stem Cuttings of Herbaceous and Woody Ornamentals in Substrates Containing Eastern Redcedar (Juniperus virginiana)

Propagation substrates can strongly influence rooting success of stem cuttings. Eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana L.) chips (ERC) have been suggested as a propagation substrate component. This study investigated ERC as a perlite substitute in a perlite:sphagnum peat moss (3:1 v/v) rooting substrate. Stem cuttings of coleus [Solenostemon scutellarioides (L.) Codd], English ivy (Hedera helix L.), forsythia (Forsythia ×intermedia Zab.), lantana (Lantana camara L.), and spreading euonymus (Euonymus kiautschovicus Loes.) were rooted in substrates containing increasing concentrations of ERC hammer-milled to pass a 4.8 mm (0.19 in) screen. All species rooted well (≥ 95%) in all substrates except forsythia which rooted poorly in all substrates (8 to 36%). ERC concentration did not affect mean root number or mean root length in any species except spreading euonymus where mean root number peaked at 0 and 100% ERC content and mean root length decreased with increasing ERC content. Bulk density, container capacity, and total porosity increased as ERC replaced perlite. Physical properties of all substrates were suitable for cutting propagation. ERC can effectively replace perlite in rooting substrates for many ornamental species.

Effects of drought stress on fluorescence characteristics of photosystem II in leaves of Plectranthus scutellarioides

Drought stress has multiple effects on the photosynthetic apparatus. Herein, we aimed to study the effect of drought stress on fluorescence characteristics of PSII in leaves of Plectranthus scutellarioides and explore potentially underlying mechanisms. Plants of P. scutellarioides were grown in a greenhouse and subjected to drought (DS, drought-stressed) or daily irrigation (control group). Leaf chlorophyll (Chl) index and induction kinetics curves of Chl a fluorescence and the JIP-test were used to evaluate effects of drought lasting for 20 d. Our results showed that both the leaf and soil relative water content decreased with increasing treatment duration. The leaf Chl index was reduced to half in the DS plants compared with the control group after 20 d. The minimal fluorescence in the DS plants was higher than that in the control plants after 10 d of the treatment. Maximum photochemical efficiency and lateral reactivity decreased with increasing treatment duration in the DS plants. With the continuing treatment, values of absorption flux per reaction center (RC), trapped energy flux per RC, dissipated energy flux per RC, and electron transport flux per RC increased in the earlier stage in the DS plants, while obviously decreased at the later stage of the treatment. In conclusion, drought stress inhibited the electron transport and reduced PSII photochemical activity in leaves of P. scutellarioides.

Ectopic Expression of the Coleus R2R3 MYB-Type Proanthocyanidin Regulator Gene SsMYB3 Alters the Flower Color in Transgenic Tobacco.

Proanthocyanidins (PAs) play an important role in plant disease defense and have beneficial effects on human health. We isolated and characterized a novel R2R3 MYB-type PA-regulator SsMYB3 from a well-known ornamental plant, coleus (Solenostemon scutellarioides), to study the molecular regulation of PAs and to engineer PAs biosynthesis. The expression level of SsMYB3 was correlated with condensed tannins contents in various coleus tissues and was induced by wounding and light. A complementation test in the Arabidopsis tt2 mutant showed that SsMYB3 could restore the PA-deficient seed coat phenotype and activated expression of the PA-specific gene ANR and two related genes, DFR and ANS. In yeast two-hybrid assays, SsMYB3 interacted with the Arabidopsis AtTT8 and AtTTG1 to reform the ternary transcriptional complex, and also interacted with two tobacco bHLH proteins (NtAn1a and NtJAF13-1) and a WD40 protein, NtAn11-1. Ectopic overexpression of SsMYB3 in transgenic tobacco led to almost-white flowers by greatly reducing anthocyanin levels and enhancing accumulation of condensed tannins. This overexpression of SsMYB3 upregulated the key PA genes (NtLAR and NtANR) and late anthocyanin structural genes (NtDFR and NtANS), but downregulated the expression of the final anthocyanin gene NtUFGT. The formative SsMYB3-complex represses anthocyanin accumulation by directly suppressing the expression of the final anthocyanin structural gene NtUFGT, through competitive inhibition or destabilization of the endogenous NtAn2-complex formation. These results suggested that SsMYB3 may form a transcription activation complex to regulate PA biosynthesis in the Arabidopsis tt2 mutant and transgenic tobacco. Our findings suggest that SsMYB3 is involved in the regulation of PA biosynthesis in coleus and has the potential as a molecular tool for manipulating biosynthesis of PAs in fruits and other crops using metabolic engineering.

Isolation and Functional Characterization of a Phenylalanine Ammonia-Lyase Gene (SsPAL1) from Coleus (Solenostemon scutellarioides (L.) Codd).

Phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) is the first enzyme involved in the phenylpropanoid pathway and plays important roles in the secondary metabolisms, development and defense of plants. To study the molecular function of PAL in anthocyanin synthesis of Coleus (Solenostemon scutellarioides (L.) Codd), a Coleus PAL gene designated as SsPAL1 was cloned and characterized using a degenerate oligonucleotide primer PCR and RACE method. The full-length SsPAL1 was 2450 bp in size and consisted of one intron and two exons encoding a polypeptide of 711 amino acids. The deduced SsPAL1 protein showed high identities and structural similarities with other functional plant PAL proteins. A series of putative cis-acting elements involved in transcriptional regulation, light and stress responsiveness were found in the upstream regulatory sequence of SsPAL1. Transcription pattern analysis indicated that SsPAL1 was constitutively expressed in all tissues examined and was enhanced by light and different abiotic factors. The recombinant SsPAL1 protein exhibited high PAL activity, at optimal conditions of 60 °C and pH 8.2. Although the levels of total PAL activity and total anthocyanin concentration have a similar variation trend in different Coleus cultivars, there was no significant correlation between them (r = 0.7529, p > 0.1), suggesting that PAL was not the rate-limiting enzyme for the downstream anthocyanin biosynthetic branch in Coleus. This study enables us to further understand the role of SsPAL1 in the phenylpropanoid (flavonoids, anthocyanins) biosynthesis in Coleus at the molecular level.

Engineered synthesis of rosmarinic acid in Escherichia coli resulting production of a new intermediate, caffeoyl-phenyllactate.

To achieve high production of rosmarinic acid and derivatives in Escherichia coli which are important phenolic acids found in plants, and display diverse biological activities. The synthesis of rosmarinic acid was achieved by feeding caffeic acid and constructing an artificial pathway for 3,4-dihydroxyphenyllactic acid. Genes encoding the following enzymes: rosmarinic acid synthase from Coleus blumei, 4-coumarate: CoA ligase from Arabidopsis thaliana, 4-hydroxyphenyllactate 3-hydroxylase from E. coli and D-lactate dehydrogenase from Lactobacillus pentosus, were overexpressed in an L-tyrosine over-producing E. coli strain. The yield of rosmarinic acid reached ~130 mg l(-1) in the recombinant strain. In addition, a new intermediate, caffeoyl-phenyllactate (~55 mg l(-1)), was also produced by the engineered E. coli strain. This work not only leads to high yield production of rosmarinic acid and analogues, but also sheds new light on the construction of the pathway of rosmarinic acid in E. coli.

First report of cucumber mosaic virus infecting bougainvillea Spectabilis, coleus Blumei, Kalanchoe blossfeldiana and Zinnia Elegans in Iran

Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) is the causal agent of diseases in a wide range of host species, causing important economic losses. In 2012, during a survey in the main ornamental- growing areas of Iran, symptomatic leaf samples from different species of plants were collected and tested by DAS-ELISA using a CMV-specific antiserum. Four CMV isolates were obtained from Bougainvillea spectabilis (CMV-Bo1), Coleus blumei (CMV-Co1), Kalanchoe blossfeldiana (CMV-Ka16) and Zinnia elegans (CMV-Zin2). Mechanical inoculation single- lesion isolates from Chenopodium amaranticolor caused similar symptoms on test plants, except for Vigna unguiculata, in which pinpoint necrotic local lesions were induced by Zin2 and large necrotic lesions by the others. A differential local lesion size in V. unguiculata has previously been reported for CMV isolates of subgroup I or II (Palukaitis and Garcia-Arenal, 2003). Zin2 was differentiated serologically using a set of 11 CMV-specific monoclonal antibodies (DSMZ, Germany). Total RNA extracted from infected Nicotiana benthamiana was used in RT-PCR with primers designed in the coat protein (CP) gene of subgroups I and II (Lin et al., 2004). A product of the expected size (638 bp) was amplified from Zin2A using subgroup II primers, while an amplicon of 657 bp was obtained with subgroup I-specific primers. Amplicons were cloned and sequenced. Multiple alignments of CP gene nucleotide sequences of CMV isolates verified that Zin2 (GenBank accession No. KP662628) belongs to subgroup II, while Bo1, Co1 and Ka16 (KP662629, KP662630, KP455737) belong to subgroup I. In Iran CMV subgroup II isolates have previously been reported from cucumber and hoary cress but, to our knowledge, not from four species presently investigated.

Immunomodulator Potential of Miana Leaves(Coleus scutellarioides (L) Benth) in Prevention of Tuberculosis Infection

Aim, The aim of this study to investigate the immunonomodulator effects of miana leaves (Coleus scutellarioides (L) Benth) on prevention of tuberculosis in wistar rats, Method, Samples of white male Wistar rats were divided into 4 groups, the samples were treated with miana leaves extract (EDM) and then infected by intra tracheal M. tuberculosis H37Rv strain and subsequently given a placebo, EDM and GAB (combined Rifampicin and EDM) and healthy control animals were treated with EDM. In this study we measure the level of Immunomodulatory parameter; the number of T-lymphocytes and CD4 T-cells measured by flowcytometry method, the levels of IFN-γ and TNF-α were measured by ELISA and the number of M. tuberculosis colonies derived from the rat lung in LJ media. Result, Results showed the increasing of T-lymphocytes, CD4 T-Cells, the levels of IFN-γ, TNF-α and decreasing in the number of M. tuberculosis colonies after EDM treatment. Conclusion, Miana leaves extract (Coleus scutellarioides, (L) Benth.) increased the number of T-lymphocytes, CD4 T-cell counts, levels of IFN-γ and TNF-α and decreased in the number of M. tuberculosis colony in infected wistar lung.

First report of Coleus blumei viroid 5 infection in vegetatively propagated clonal coleus cv. ‘Aurora black cherry’ in Japan

Plectranthus scutellarioides (synonym: Coleus blumei ) is a popular garden plant, cultivated worldwide and is known to be infected with several viroids of the genus Coleviroid , family Pospiviroidae . Coleus blumei viroid 1 (CbVd-1) is the…

Downy mildew of coleus caused by Peronospora belbahrii in Japan

In April 2007, coleus (Solenostemon scutellarioides) plants cultivated in a greenhouse in Chiba Prefecture, Japan were observed to have poor growth, with yellowing of the adaxial leaf surface and a gray to black downy growth on the abaxial leaf surface. The causal pathogen was identified as Peronospora belbahrii based on its morphology and rDNA-ITS sequences. Uninfected coleus was inoculated with the pathogen, the original symptoms were reproduced, and the isolate was reisolated. This is the first report of downy mildew of coleus in Japan.

Examining the photoprotection hypothesis for adaxial foliar anthocyanin accumulation by revisiting comparisons of green- and red-leafed varieties of coleus (Solenostemon scutellarioides)

Although plants rely on light to drive energy production via photosynthesis, excess light can be harmful. Plants have evolved photoprotective mechanisms to mitigate this threat, including thermal energy dissipation, the most common form of which involves de-epoxidized constituents of the xanthophyll cycle facilitating the conversion of excess excitation energy to heat. A role in photoprotection has also been proposed for red anthocyanins when they accumulate near the adaxial leaf surface. Here, we compared the response to experimental light stress of a red-leafed (anthocyanin rich) and a green-leafed variety of coleus [Solenostemon scutellarioides (L.) Codd], examining chlorophyll fluorescence emission and pigment composition. After experimentally imposed intense white light, red- and green-leafed coleus exhibited manifestations of light stress (decreased photosystem II quantum efficiency) of a similar magnitude. This, considered alone, could be interpreted as evidence that anthocyanins do not serve a photoprotective role. However, during excess light exposure, the green-leafed variety employed a greater level of thermal energy dissipation and possessed correspondingly higher xanthophyll cycle pool sizes and de-epoxidation states. During exposure to red light, which anthocyanins absorb very poorly, levels of thermal energy dissipation did not differ between coleus varieties. Taken together, our findings suggest that adaxial anthocyanins minimize stress associated with excess light absorption and that the green-leafed variety of coleus compensated for its much lower levels of adaxial anthocyanins by invoking higher levels of energy dissipation. Thus, anthocyanin accumulation should be considered alongside the suite of photoprotective mechanisms employed by photosynthetic tissues.

Potential of Different Coleus blumei Tissues for Rosmarinic Acid Production.

Rosmarinic acid is one of the main active components of Coleus blumei and is known to have numerous health benefits. The pharmacological significance of rosmarinic acid and its production through in vitro culture has been the subject of numerous studies. Here, the ability of different tissues to accumulate rosmarinic acid and sustainability in production over long cultivation have been tested. Calli, tumours, normal roots and hairy roots were established routinely by application of plant growth regulators or by transformation with agrobacteria. The differences among the established tumour lines were highly heterogeneous. Hairy root lines showed the highest mean growth rate and consistency in rosmarinic acid production. Although some tumour lines produced more rosmarinic acid than the hairy root lines, over a long cultivation period their productivity was unstable and decreased. Further, the effects of plant growth regulators on growth and rosmarinic acid accumulation were tested. 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid significantly reduced tumour growth and rosmarinic acid production. 1-Naphthaleneacetic acid strongly stimulated hairy root growth whilst abscisic acid strongly enhanced rosmarinic acid production. Hairy roots cultured in an airlift bioreactor exhibited the highest potential for mass production of rosmarinic acid.

First Report of Basil Downy Mildew Caused by Peronospora belbahrii in the Czech Republic.

Sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) is an annual aromatic and medicinal plant in the Lamiaceae that is originally native to India but is grown in warm regions all over the world. It is a popular culinary herb used fresh and dried, and is used in traditional folk medicine. In the Czech Republic, sweet basil is grown commercially in South Moravia or by home gardeners as a potted plant. In 2012, severe downy mildew was observed in a field of basil plants (cv. Dark Green) at the Crop Research Institute (CRI) in Olomouc, Czech Republic. Infected leaves each exhibited large, interveinal, chlorotic lesions, and violet-gray, fuzzy growth on the lower leaf surface. Within a few days, lesions turned necrotic and severely infected leaves dropped prematurely. Microscopic observations revealed hyaline conidiophores typical of Peronospora Corda, emerging from stomata. Conidiophores (n = 100) were usually 239.9 to 296.5 × 8.7 to 10.6 μm, straight, and were branched 4 or 5 times submonopodially at the upper ends. Ultimate branchlets (n = 100) were slightly curved and obtuse, with the longer branchlets usually 17.8 to 22.7 μm and the shorter branchlets 10.0 to 12.9 μm, and each bearing a single conidium. Conidia (n = 100) were olive-brown, mostly ellipsoidal to subglobose, and typically 29.0 to 31.0 × 23.2 to 25.4 μm, with a length/width ratio of 1.2 to 1.3. Oospores were not observed. Based on these morphological characteristics, the pathogen was identified as Peronospora belbahrii Thines (5). The specimen was deposited in a local herbarium at the CRI in Olomouc, as voucher PB-1. Genomic DNA was extracted from conidia, and the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of ribosomal DNA (rDNA) amplified with primers DC-6 (1) and LR-0 (4). A sequence was deposited in the NCBI database (GenBank Accession No. KJ960193). A BLAST search of the NCBI database revealed 99% identity to the deposited ITS sequences of P. belbahrii from basil and other host species (EU863410, FJ394334-7, GQ390794, GQ390795, HM462241, HM462242, HM486901, HQ702191, HQ730979, KC756923, KF419289, and KF419290). P. belbahrii was first described by Thines et al. (5) as a pathogen of sweet basil and coleus (Solenostemon scutellarioides), but can also infect Agastache spp. (2). There are many reports indicating the pathogen is spreading throughout the world (5). In Europe, chronologically, basil downy mildew has been reported from Italy, France, Switzerland, Germany, Hungary, and Cyprus (2,3,5). To our knowledge, this is the first report of natural occurrence of downy mildew on sweet basil in the Czech Republic.

The cellular protective effects of rosmarinic acid: from bench to bedside.

Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) is one of the most common household herbs, used as spices in a variety of foods, and employed in traditional medicine for its healing properties. Rosemary is a rich source of active antioxidant constituents such as phenolic diterpenes, flavonoids and phenolic acids. Caffeic acid and rosmarinic acid are the most important bioactive constituents. Rosmarinic acid is the ester of caffeic acid and 3,4-dihydroxyphenyllactic acid and is widely identified in different plant species. Chemical structure of rosmarinic acid contains two phenolic rings: one of them is derived from phenylalanine via caffeic acid and the other from tyrosine via dihydroxyphenyl-lactic acid. Its large-scale production is obtained from plant cell cultures of Coleus blumei Benth. It is easily absorbed through gastrointestinal tract as well as the skin. Rosmarinic acid is one of the most important and well known natural antioxidant compounds, which possesses neuroprotective effects in different models of neuroinflammation, neurodegeneration, as well as chemicalinduced neurotoxicity and oxidative stress. Therefore, in present review, we aim to discuss about chemistry, sources, biotechnological production and neuroprotective actions of rosmarinic acid with emphasis on its possible molecular mechanisms of neuroprotection.

Improving Performance of Coleus through Mutation Induction by Gamma Ray Irradiation

The objective of this study is to study the effect of gamma ray irradiation (15, 30, 45, and 60 gray (Gy) to determine Lethal Dose 50 (LD50) values, and to obtain new Coleus variances in a relatively short time. The study was conducted in a greenhouse at Cikabayan experimental field, Bogor Agricultural University, Darmaga, Bogor in May to July 2013. Gamma irradiation treatment significantly affected height, number of leaves, and number of nodes. Increasing the dose level of gamma irradiation tend to inhibit plant growth. LD50 for yellow/green, green/brown, variegated green/brown of Coleus blumei, and Coleus amboinicus Lour were 48.66, 65.2, 52.81, and 37.62 Gy respectively. C. amboinicus irradiated at a dose level of 45 Gy had different leaf shapes compared to control. Keywords: Coleus, gamma ray irradiation, LD50 values, ornamental plant, torbangun

Changes in the spectral pattern of selenium accumulation in Coleus blumei and the effects of chelation.

Chemically enhanced phytoremediation has been proposed as an effective approach to remove heavy metals from contaminated soil through the use of high biomass production plants. This study investigated changes in the spectral pattern of selenium (Se) accumulation in Coleus blumei Benth. (coleus) plants grown in hydroponics with 1.0mg/l sodium selenite (Na2SeO3) and the effects of (S,S)-ethylenediamine disuccinic acid (EDDS) thereon through X-ray diffraction (XRD), energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDXS) and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy analyses. When EDDS concentrations were in the range of 0-1.0mmol/l, Se content increased significantly; however, at EDDS concentrations above this range, the symptoms of Se toxicity were alleviated in coleus leaves. Application of EDDS over 1.0mmol/l significantly decreased total Se uptake in the leaves and roots of the plants. The powder diffraction patterns of the roots and leaves displayed sharp crystalline peaks, which were characteristic of an organic molecule with crystallinity. Our results revealed the presence of high amounts of C, O, Mg, Al, Si, K and Ca in the roots and leaves under Se-induced stress with different concentrations of EDDS. There were no changes in the chemical compositions of the roots and leaves, but the contents were influenced by Se-induced stress and EDDS treatment. This study demonstrated the importance of applying XRD, EDXS and FTIR methods toward a more comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms of EDDS-induced Se accumulation in plants.

First record of downy mildew, caused by Peronospora belbahrii, on Solenostemon scutellarioides in the UK

Solenostemon scutellarioides (Lamiaceae), commonly known as coleus, is a popular ornamental houseplant and summer bedding plant in the UK. In 2014, several S. scutellarioides cv. 'Chocolate Mint' plants were received by the Royal …

The application of multiplex fluorimetric sensor for the analysis of flavonoids content in the medicinal herbs family Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, Rosaceae.

BackgroundThe aim of our research work was to quantify total flavonoid contents in the leaves of 13 plant species family Asteraceae, 8 representatives of family Lamiaceae and 9 plant species belonging to family Rosaceae, using the multiplex fluorimetric sensor. Fluorescence was measured using optical fluorescence apparatus Multiplex(R) 3 (Force-A, France) for non-destructive flavonoids estimation. The content of total flavonoids was estimated by FLAV index (expressed in relative units), that is deduced from flavonoids UV absorbing properties.ResultsAmong observed plant species, the highest amount of total flavonoids has been found in leaves of Helianthus multiflorus (1.65 RU) and Echinops ritro (1.27 RU), Rudbeckia fulgida (1.13 RU) belonging to the family Asteraceae. Lowest flavonoid content has been observed in the leaves of marigold (Calendula officinalis) (0.14 RU) also belonging to family Asteraceae. The highest content of flavonoids among experimental plants of family Rosaceae has been estimated in the leaves of Rosa canina (1.18 RU) and among plant species of family Lamiaceae in the leaves of Coleus blumei (0.90 RU).ConclusionsThis research work was done as pre-screening of flavonoids content in the leaves of plant species belonging to family Asteraceae, Lamiaceae and Rosaceae. Results indicated that statistically significant differences (P > 0.05) in flavonoids content were observed not only between families, but also among individual plant species within one family.