China Mission Research Articles

A French Jesuit in China: The Case of André Yverneau 1948–1951

During the many centuries of interaction and exchange between China and Europe, one of the most complex and ambiguous relationships was that of the Catholic Church and its missionaries in China. On one hand, they contributed to and can be seen as a part of the European imperial project of world colonisation, but on the other hand, they were instrumental in sharing and exchanging knowledge, as well as creating schools and other institutions in the places they created missions. At the same time, attempts were being made within the Catholic Church to promote the development of a Chinese clergy, although this issue remained divisive. This article examines these complex relationships through the eyes of a French Jesuit, André Yverneau, who was in China between 1948 and 1951 and who left a collection of letters back to his family describing these years. His experiences, observations, reactions and attitudes towards China and the mission are presented and analysed in order to re-evaluate some of the main debates surrounding the mission in China in the mid-twentieth century: education, language, indigenisation, and politics, both internal to the Catholic Church and with its relations in China.

State of the Field Report XV: Contemporary Chinese Studies of the Scholastic-Aristotelian Soul in Late-Ming and Early-Qing China

AbstractThe Jesuit China mission coincided with a sophisticated attempt to place Chinese and Western concepts of human nature in dialogue with Confucianism. The Jesuits believed that they could facilitate evangelization by drawing upon Confucian concepts to explain the soul. In so doing, they and their Chinese collaborators also pioneered a genre of hybrid philosophical texts, which used Aristotelian conceptions of the soul to critique and supplement autochthonous Chinese conceptions of human nature. These texts are not just of significance for Chinese Christian theology, but also anthropology, psychology, and even medicine, given the role played by the soul in both Chinese and Western conceptions of human physiology at the time. Until recently these texts have been little studied except by missiologists who were more interested in their relevance for mission history than for comparative philosophy. Scholarship has perhaps also been hampered by the immense linguistic demands of studying texts that sit between the Chinese and Western intellectual traditions. Recently, however, a number of Chinese scholars have turned their attention to these texts, intrigued by novel philosophical ideas contained therein and their complex relationship to both the Western and Chinese intellectual and religious traditions. Since many of these Chinese-language contributions are published in volumes which are not easily accessible outside of China, they have not enjoyed great visibility in Western-language scholarship. This article will review the major developments in Chinese scholarship and will conclude with suggestions for future research.

Missionary Writings During the Canton Exile (1666–1671): Controversies on the Inculturation of the Catholic Church

Abstract In the aftermath of the Calendar Case, 25 missionaries arrived in Canton in March 1666. Over the course of their five-year exile, they generated numerous reports and letters which, until now, have not been subject to systematic study. This paper delves into their writings concerning the establishment of three practical norms for the China mission: permitting Chinese Catholics to observe traditional rites honoring their ancestors and Confucius, allowing them to continue fasting under certain conditions, and instructing them to wear a Chinese hat during the liturgy. Though these norms were ratified by majority vote, they were immediately met with opposition. Although the controversy on the Chinese rites is well-documented, it is pertinent to examine these three controversies together, as they pertain to the issue of inculturation within the Catholic Church.

Medical Historical Value of the “The Quarterly Reports of the Ophthalmic Hospital at Canton” Review of Peter Parker and Ophthalmic Hospital at Canton

Recently published by the Central Compilation and Translation Press, Peter Parker and Ophthalmic Hospital at Canton is the Chinese edition of The Quarterly Reports of the Ophthalmic Hospital at Canton, written by Dr. Peter Parker (1804-1888), an American medical missionary. Dr. Parker founded the Canton Ophthalmic Hospital in November 1835, the first Western hospital in China. From 1836 to 1850, he authored 15 quarterly reports, which were serialized in The Chinese Repository. These reports document patient statistics and detailed case studies, highlighting the role of medical missionaries in China before and after the Opium War and the introduction of Western medicine to China.

Reconstruction of Knowledge and Medical Images in the Convergence of Chinese and Western Medicine ——Taking “Sweet Meat” as an Example

Abstract: The pancreas is neither part of the five Zang organs (五脏) nor the six Fu organs (六腑). Thus, it has received little attention in Chinese medical literature. In the late 19th century, medical missionaries in China started translating and introducing anatomical and physiological knowledge about the pancreas. As for the word pancreas, an early and influential translation was “sweet meat” (甜肉), proposed by Benjamin Hobson (合信). The translation “sweet meat” is not faithful to the original meaning of “pancreas”, but is a term coined by Hobson based on his personal habits, and the word “sweet” appeared by chance. However, in the decades since the term “sweet meat” became popular, Chinese medicine practitioners, such as Tang Zonghai (唐宗海), reinterpreted it by drawing new medical illustrations for “sweet meat” and giving new connotations to the word “sweet”. This discussion and interpretation of “sweet meat” in modern China, particularly among Chinese medicine professionals, is not only a dissemination and interpretation of the knowledge of “pancreas”, but also a construction of knowledge around the term “sweet meat”.

Lois Chapple (1897–1989): A Life in Service of Christ

This article gives a narrative account of the life of Lois Chapple, a Baptist woman, who served as a deaconess, a missionary in China, and as an evangelist and a secretary for the Baptist Women’s League and the Baptist World Alliance. This article offers Chapple as an excellent example of how women within Baptist life found opportunities to serve in the twentieth century.

Dictionaries as authorities? The problematic use of Chinese dictionaries by missionaries in the Rites Controversy

ABSTRACT In the seventeenth century, missionaries in China translated a vast array of Chinese works, including classics, official histories, and legal documents. Their translations have been analysed through several perspectives, yet their use of Chinese dictionaries has been largely overlooked. In the context of the Rites Controversy, between the Jesuits on one side and the Dominican and Franciscan friars on the other, precise references to authoritative Chinese dictionaries were made to corroborate their interpretation of Chinese rituals as either religious or secular. This article first describes why and how missionaries started from the early beginning of the mission in the 1580s to write their own bilingual dictionaries based on existing Western and Chinese dictionaries. Then, it considers how the same dictionaries became an important reference when the Rites Controversy erupted in the 1630s. Based on manuscript and printed documents written until 1670, three Chinese characters which became the focus of competing interpretations are discussed: miao as temple versus hall, ji as sacrifice versus offering, and sheng as prophet versus wise man. Besides the problem of biased translations on both sides, we shall show that there was a more fundamental reason which prevented the missionaries from settling their controversy using dictionaries.

From sanctus to shengren: mediating Christian and Chinese concepts of human excellence in early modern China

ABSTRACT In the 1580s, when the Jesuit missionaries Michele Ruggieri (1543–1607) and Matteo Ricci (1552–1610) established the first Jesuit mission in China, the terms “translatability” and “cultural incommensurability” were yet to enter the European lexicon, but these questions were addressed implicitly through the translation choices employed in the mission field. For the early missionaries, translatability had immense ramifications for their missionary practice. One of the foremost challenges was how to communicate in Chinese the concept of “sanctity,” which was central to Christian soteriology. There was a range of terms in Chinese intellectual and religious traditions that the Jesuits drew upon to translate sanctus such as shengren 聖人 zhenren 真人, and xian 仙, but each of these terms implied a certain commensurability between Christian and indigenous Chinese conceptions of human excellence. This paper will present a microhistory of early Jesuit attempts to translate sanctus in Chinese, and reflect upon the significance of these translation choices for the development of the Jesuits’ missionary strategy.

Chongqing Transit: Central European Jewish Refugees in China’s Wartime Capital and Interior*

While most central European Jewish refugees who transited through China during the Second World War lived in Shanghai, some found refuge in other Chinese cities. This article is a microhistory of two German-speaking refugee families, the Karfunkels and the Gottliebs, who spent the war in China’s interior—in the Nationalist wartime capital of Chongqing, amongst other locales. During the war, the relocation of the Nationalist seat of government to Chongqing and the arrival of Allied military missions in inner China led to great demographic upheaval in the city. On the margins of both foreign and Chinese society, the Karfunkels and the Gottliebs found themselves caught up in a significant population shift and a number of social changes. As Japan’s assault on China worsened, the families’ medical, mechanical, and technical expertise was increasingly in demand, elevating their position in Chongqing society. This article investigates the ways that the progression of the Second World War changed Jewish refugee individuals’ circumstances in China’s interior.

Role of the Russian Spiritual Mission in China in Training of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs Officials

Activity of the Russian Spiritual Mission in Beijing helped to strengthen the relationships between Russia and China. The history of the Russian spiritual mission in Beijing is represented by a wide range of publications of Soviet and church researchers. At the same time, the civil service of the mission students was out of the scope of the study. The purpose of this work is to conduct a comprehensive study of the organizational and legal basis of the institute of apprenticeship of the Russian spiritual mission in Beijing, to determine the role of the Russian spiritual mission in the training of officials of the Board, later the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The right to send the mission to Beijing regularly was agreed with both Russia and China in Khakhta Treaty in 1727. In addition, the treaty stipulated the sending of four students to Beijing. The students studied the Chinese and the Manchu languages. Students had to be engaged in scientific activities. Legal status of the students of the Mission was defined by regulations on civil servants. Production to higher ranks for special merits was carried out by the Mission Council with the approval of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. A student returning from Beijing was determined to a further place of state civil service as it was decided by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. As a whole, apprenticeship as a part of the Russian spiritual mission became a factor of successful career growth and a certain social lift for many students of the mission. The author concludes that the institute created under the spiritual mission was an effective mechanism for training highly qualified specialists for diplomatic activities.

Prudentes sicut serpentes: Dissimulation and Concealment in Japanese and Chinese Missions in the Seventeenth Century

This volume aims to explore the concepts of hypocrisy and dissimulation, conceived in the framework of the ‘tensions at the heart of Christian teaching and experience’. This tension primarily points towards a conflict between ideal and lived practice; however, in certain circumstances, dissimulation and deceit might be understood as legitimate responses to a given situation. This article examines significant aspects of dissimulation in the specific case of early modern missions in China and Japan at the end of the sixteenth and throughout the seventeenth century, where missionaries often had to resort to disguise and concealment. Many of them had to overcome immense difficulties just to enter the country; some had to evangelize in secret, living in constant fear and facing ongoing persecution. In these territories, the ‘policy of deceit’ therefore became a relevant part of the proselytizing enterprise. I examine these practices of dissimulation with regard to evangelization strategies, and relate them to the sincerity and the confession of the faith, two of the central problems of the Christian credo. I argue that dissimulation was perceived, by the missionaries, as a legitimate and tactical response to the challenging and complex circumstances of the Japanese and Chinese missions in this period.

Compilation of Dictionaries and Scientific and Technological Translations by Western Protestant Missionaries in China in the Nineteenth Century

The 19th century saw the important transformation of modern Western concepts into Chinese lexical resources. The missionaries were the initiators and important driving force for the translation of Western books into Chinese in modern China. They promoted ‘translating terms’ and ‘coining terms’ in their translations of Western books and the compilation of dictionaries with the cooperation of Chinese intellectuals. Their work provided a tangible ‘word’ carrier of ‘concepts’ for disseminating modern knowledge from the West to the East. Compiled by missionaries, the English–Chinese bilingual dictionaries introduced a brand-new concept of dictionary compilation and changed China’s history of having zidian (字典, character dictionaries) but no cidian (辞典, specialized dictionaries). In particular, John Fryer applied the translation method of creating new words or characters in the translation of chemical terminology. Members of the School and Textbook Series Committee, including John Fryer and Calvin Wilson Mateer, made great contributions to theories and strategies for translation, which keep inspiring Chinese–English translation of terminology and its theoretical construction.

Low-thrust trajectory optimization of deep space exploration based on discrete pulse method

Deep space exploration is gradually becoming the hot mission of human space activities, and this kind of mission has the characteristics of a long mission cycle, complex space environment, high fuel demand, and difficult telemetry track and command, etc. It is the future trend to carry out deep space exploration activities using low-thrust propulsion systems, and the trajectory optimization of interplanetary missions is one of the significant difficulties. Considering the characteristics and difficulties of interplanetary missions, a method of transfer orbit preliminary design in the multi-body system is proposed in this paper. The simulation results illustrate that the transfer orbit obtained by the method in this paper can provide a reliable initial guess for the optimization of high-precision orbit and decrease convergence sensitivity. The research results can provide a significant reference for the implementation of deep space exploration missions in China in the future.

Christian Iconography on Ming and Qing Chinese Porcelain: Religious Influence and Artistic Hybridization

Since the arrival of Christian missionaries in China through maritime trade networks, missionary activities have been changing from the 16th century to the 18th century. Christian missionaries faced numerous challenges stemming from cultural context and religious policies in China. Throughout history, various religious strategies have been employed to address these challenges. The use of Chinese porcelain to depict Christian imagery holds significant importance. The present study is focused on four representative Chinese porcelains dating from the Ming to Qing dynasties, each associated with specific phases of Christianity in China. Examining the connections between the Christian mission in China and Christian iconography on Chinese porcelain leads to the conclusion that the visual culture associated with the Christian mission in China is influenced by and reflects intercultural or interreligious dialogue with mutual understanding. In the meantime, it signifies an intricate process of interaction, appropriation, hybridization, and adaptation, through which Christian iconography gained new significance on Chinese porcelain.

Pedro de la Piñuela’s Bencao Bu and the Cultural Exchanges between China and the West

In the 16th and 17th centuries, Catholic missionaries in China adopted the strategy of cultural accommodation and engaged in extensive interactions with Chinese literati and the general population in order to integrate into Chinese society. They left numerous writings in the Chinese language, objectively promoting cultural exchanges between the East and the West. This article focuses on the pharmacological work Bencao Bu (本草補, Supplement to Chinese Materia Medica) by Spanish Franciscan Pedro de la Piñuela (石鐸琭, Shi Duolu, 1650–1704). The article argues that, in addition to questioning whether the works in Chinese left by missionaries have contributed to the progress of Chinese society in science, medicine, humanities and other aspects, we should also explore the process of encounter between two different cultures. Although Bencao Bu did not significantly advance Chinese medicine, la Piñuela incorporated elements of Chinese culture into the book and made an initial attempt to apply Chinese medical concepts in diagnosis and treatment. Furthermore, the book not only introduced certain Western scientific knowledge and pharmaceutical techniques but also could be considered the epitome of the global exchange of botanical knowledge and medical experiences, promoting mutual understanding between different parts of the world. This underscores the cultural significance beyond religious purposes found in Bencao Bu as well as other scientific and cultural works by missionaries during the Ming and Qing periods in China.

Was Joaquim Angélico de Jesus Guerra S.J. (1908–1993) a 20th-Century Figurist?

Fr. Joaquim Angélico de Jesus Guerra S.J. (Chinese name: Ge Zhendong), a Portuguese missionary in China, was the most prolific Sinologist in the Lusophone world. Over a period of nine years (1979–1988), he published his translations and commentaries on the Wujing (Five Classics) and the Sishu (Four Books), plus the Xiaojing (Classic of Filial Piety) and the Daodejing. Much more astonishing than his monumental Sinological work is the peculiar silence academia devoted to his achievements. One of Guerra’s remarkable features, which is a possible reason for such silence, is his alleged “figurist” attitude towards the Chinese Classics. This article discusses Guerra’s figurism and his theological background, briefly compares it with the original Figurism and theology of Joachim Bouvet and Joseph de Prémare, and finally expounds on sections of the Shijing (Book of Songs), the Shangshu (Book of Historical Documents), and the Daodejing that were interpreted typologically by the French Figurists in their commentaries on the Chinese Classics. The aim is to analyze Guerra’s interpretation of these texts and determine if typological readings of figurist type can be found in his Portuguese translations and commentaries on the Chinese Classics.

Архивные фонды и коллекции документов профессора Г. З. Байера в Санкт-Петербурге и Глазго

The article provides an overview of archival documents related to Gottlieb Siegfried Bayer (1694–1738), professor of the first staff of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. Bayer's research interests were quite diverse and included the study of the languages and culture of Asia, the Volga region, the Urals, Siberia, history of the Black Sea region, origin of the Varangians and Rus'. Bayer's documents are mainly concentrated in two repositories: the St. Petersburg branch of the Archives of the Russian Academy of Sciences (SPbF ARAN) and in the Special Collections of the University of Glasgow Library (UGL). The article examines the history of the formation and composition of archival collections, as well as the most significant publications. In the St. Petersburg Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences there is a personal collection of Bayer, formed in the Soviet period. The fund includes two inventories: manuscripts of works and materials and correspondence of the scientist, with a total of 64 files. In addition to the personal fund, Bayer’s documents can be found in other funds and categories of the St. Petersburg Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences. The archive contains notes, projects, organizational, administrative, personnel, financial documentation, including those related to Bayer’s activities as inspector of the Academic Gymnasium. Bayer's papers in the University of Glasgow Library arrived there at the beginning of the 19th century. The collection is made up of documents sent shortly before the scientist’s death to K?nigsberg and includes draft articles, notes, various copies and extracts, correspondence, books from his personal library, a total of 261 items. Almost all the documents in Glasgow are related to Bayer's orientalist interests. Complexes of documents in St. Petersburg and Glasgow include the scholar’s autographs. Most of the documents are manuscripts. There are a small number of printed books, including those of Chinese origin (UGL). Certain documents are duplicated in both complexes, for example, Bayer's correspondence with Jesuit missionaries in China. The first publications of Bayer's archival documents were made in the 18th century. Extracts from the documents appeared in various publications of the 19th century on the history of the Academy of Sciences. Several articles and monographs cited extensive quotations from Bayer's correspondence. A significant number of items were abstracted and cited in the Catalogue of the Bayer collection in Glasgow. A few translations of Bayer's texts are given in the new volume on the history of the Academy of Sciences. Bayer's archival collections complement each other, allowing one to evaluate the academic research practices and trace connections and interactions in the 18th-century scholars.

The China Mission in the Early Seventeenth Century: The Link between Higher Administration and On-the-Ground Missions

Adopting an accommodationist strategy with a positive attitude, the mission in China had a breakthrough when Matteo Ricci reached the Ming Court in 1601. Valentin Carvaglio’s Lettre de la Chine de l’an 1601 reports on this historical moment and testifies that the Jesuits’ intelligent, discreet, and humble presence under the guidance of the policy was an effective strategy. However, after Ricci’s death, the high profile adopted by the mission and tensions between Carvaglio and Nicholas Longobardi caused setbacks. This article seeks to provide a deeper understanding of how new mission directions and tensions between the administration from above and missions on the ground can impact mission.

Introduction

The first seven articles in the current volume of the “Ignatianum Philosophical Yearbook” are dedicated to Jesuit missions in China, based on the manuscript work of the Polish Jesuit Tomasz Dunin Szpot (1644–1713) entitled Historiae Sinarum Imperii, located in Rome in the Archivum Romanum Societatis Iesu (ARSI Jap. Sin. 102, ARSI Jap. Sin. 103). In this work, which has a chronological character, Szpot included a description of the Jesuits’ experiences in the Middle Kingdom from the initiation of the mission by St. Francis Xavier in the mid-16th century up to the first decade of the 18th century.

The Role of Russian Fiction Literature in the Perception of the Russia’s Image in China

The article analyzes the process of forming the image of Russia and Russian people by means of Russian literature. Russian literature perception in China, the transformation of the Russian literature mission in China can be traced over five periods: Russian literature of the XIX century, Soviet “Red Classics”, Russian literature in the 1960s, Russian literature in the 1980s, Russian literature after the collapse of the USSR to the present time. Currently the amount of publication as well as the number of those who read modern Russian literature in China are gradually declining, this leads to the fact that its influence on Chinese society is decreasing. However, the influence of modern Russian literature in China will last for a long time, it is simply observed in the literature itself, not concerning other factors, because without understanding Russian fiction, it is impossible to understand the national mentality and to form the image of Russia.