Byzantine Era Research Articles

Patrones ganaderos e inferencias culturales en la ciudad islámica de Qartayanna (Cartagena, España)

This paper presents the results of the faunal analysis of the bone remains recovered in the Islamic suburb located on the Roman theater of Cartagena (Murcia), with a broad chronological overview (ss. X-XIII). Thanks to the analysis of 6,940 bone elements recovered in dumps associated with houses, the consumption patterns and livestock strategies of a city that is recovering its importance from the 10th century, within the Islamic orbit, are inferred, which will leave a mark on consumption patterns associated with identity and cultural issues. In this way, the progressive loss of the ruralized image of the previous period (Byzantine era) is observed and progress is made towards a market economy typical of a big city. This work emphasizes the potential of archaeofaunistic studies to determine cultural issues.

Palaeoenvironmental evolution and decline of the harbours of the Roman and Early Byzantine city of Elaiussa Sebaste (southeastern Turkey): natural and anthropic causes

ABSTRACTThe ancient city of Elaiussa Sebaste, currently Ayaş, is located on the southeastern coast of Turkey. It was one of the main trading Mediterranean harbours from the Augustan period until the early Byzantine era. The Arab invasion in the 7th century ce marked its definitive abandonment. A significant historical topic concerns the palaeoenvironmental evolution of the northern and southern harbours of Elaiussa Sebaste, including their decline and burial. An interdisciplinary study analysed six cores drilled in the current plains corresponding to the former harbour basins. A geoelectrical study, integrated with borehole stratigraphy, reconstructed the geometry of the carbonate bedrock that forms the accumulation base of the marine sediments. Sediments deposited from the 8th century bce to the 6th century ce include the development phases of the ancient city from the 3rd century bce onwards. Sedimentology, micropalaeontology (foraminifers, ostracods), palaeobotany (pollen, non‐pollen palynomorphs, microcharcoals, plant macroremains) and Pb isotopes provided a model of the environmental evolution in both harbour basins. The main harbour expansion phase, marked by a change in Pb concentration, is hypothesized to have occurred between 140 and 220 ce, which is consistent with the historical sources indicating the development of the city during the mid‐Roman Imperial period.

All roads lead to (New) Rome: Byzantine astronomy and geography in a rapidly changing world

During the first few centuries CE, the centre of the known world gradually shifted from Alexandria to Constantinople. Combined with a societal shift from pagan beliefs to Christian doctrines, Antiquity gave way to the Byzantine era. While Western Europe entered an extended period of intellectual decline, Constantinople developed into a rich cultural crossroads between East and West. Yet, Byzantine scholarship in astronomy and geography continued to rely heavily on their ancient Greek heritage, and particularly on Ptolemy’s Geography. Unfortunately, Ptolemy’s choices for his geographic coordinate system resulted in inherent and significant distortions of and inaccuracies in maps centred on the Byzantine Empire. This comprehensive review of Byzantine geographic achievements—supported by a review of astronomical developments pertaining to position determination on Earth—aims to demonstrate why and how, when Constantinople fell to the Turks in 1453 and the Ottoman Empire commenced, Byzantine astronomers had become the central axis in an extensive network of Christians, Muslims and Jews. Their influence remained significant well into the Ottoman era, particularly in the context of geographical applications.

Characterization of İscehisar Andesite (Afyonkarahisar-Turkey), Used as a Building Stone Source of Historical Heritages from Ancient Times to the Present

Most historical structures that have survived to the present day are constructed from natural stones. One such natural stone is andesite. This study conducted a series of characterization studies on andesites used as building stones in Afyonkarahisar (Turkey). The building stones in question were determined by the petrographic-mineralogical (polarizing microscope, XRD, SEM), chemical, pore diameter distribution, and physico-mechanical properties. Although the İscehisar andesite is not as well-known as the İscehisar marble, it is a volcanic rock widely used in cultural heritage sites such as mosques, fountains, and bridges that have survived from the Seljuk and Ottoman periods to the present day in Afyonkarahisar. Despite the presence of pink, brown, and gray-black colors in the İscehisar andesite, it is evident that the preference in historical buildings is mainly for gray-black variants. Andesite, marble, and limestone, such as İscehisar Bridge from the Hellenistic period, Kırkgöz Bridge from the Byzantine era, Altıgöz Bridge from the Seljuk period, and Kanlı Göl Bridge from the Ottoman period, were used together in various combinations. Mosques are another group of structures in which andesite and other volcanic rocks are heavily used, such as bridges. While tuff is commonly used in examples of Seljuk and Ottoman architecture that have survived to the present day, andesite and other volcanic rocks along with bricks have also been used to construct dozens of mosques. Andesites found in the İscehisar region continue to be widely extracted, cut, and shaped using different surface processing techniques and are used today.

Theology of John of Damascus on The Antichrist in the Eighth-Century Orthodox Church

This study explores the theology of John of Damascus on the Antichrist within the context of the Eighth-Century Orthodox Church. Addressing a gap in existing scholarship, this research provides a comprehensive analysis of John of Damascus's eschatological views, particularly his depiction of the Antichrist, and examines their theological, historical, and cultural implications. Employing a historical-theological method, the research involves a detailed textual analysis of John of Damascus's works, contextualization within the Byzantine era, comparative analysis with contemporary and preceding theologians, and interpretation through theological frameworks. The study reveals that John of Damascus articulated a clear and systematic portrayal of the Antichrist, integrating it within his broader eschatological framework. His views were shaped by the historical and political milieu of the Eighth Century, notably the rise of Islam and internal theological disputes within Byzantium. John of Damascus emphasized the Antichrist as a significant heretical threat, advocating for vigilance and steadfastness in faith among the Christian faithful. His teachings were deeply woven into Orthodox doctrine, reinforcing the eventual triumph of Christ and the necessity of maintaining orthodox beliefs against heretical challenges. The findings underscore the lasting impact of John of Damascus's theology on the Antichrist in the Orthodox tradition, influencing subsequent theological developments and the Church's understanding of end-time events. This study highlights the importance of his eschatological perspectives, demonstrating how they were both reflective of and responsive to the theological and historical challenges of his time.

“The Gates of Eternal Life”: Metamorphosis and Performativity in Middle to Late Byzantine Sculpted Church Doors (with a Case Study of a Wallachian Wooden Door)

In recent years, there has been a growing interest in analyzing the manufacturing techniques of Byzantine church doors in laboratory settings. However, the connection between the iconography and significance of the décor of church doors and their liturgical performativity, as well as their parallels with iconostases in Byzantium, remained a relatively underexplored area of study. This article seeks to delve deeper into these intersections. By focusing on the relationship between the iconography of church doors in Middle to Late Byzantium and their connection to the sacred space and liturgical practices, I aim to shed light on how these artworks played a crucial role in the sacred experience of the Byzantines. This exploration will not highlight only the aesthetic evolution of church door artwork but also emphasize the communal and embodied nature of the religious experience during the Byzantine era. Their intricate designs were not merely decorative elements but served as portals to the divine, enriching the salvation journey of worshippers as they crossed the threshold into the liturgical spaces. By conducting an examination of the development of door iconography and their symbolism throughout the empire’s history, the transformation of narrative depictions from the Middle Byzantine era to the Palaiologan period, culminating in a convergence of symbolic meanings within the sacred space of the church, is delineated. This transformation is further exemplified by a sculpted church door from the Principality of Wallachia. By bridging the gap between art history and religious studies, this article aims to rekindle interest in the profound symbolism and significance of Byzantine church doors and their relation to sacred liturgical space, offering a broader perspective on an important aspect of Byzantine heritage.

Shrewdness and Coup d’œil: The Cognitive Attributes of the Consummate General (Greek Antiquity, Byzantine Era, Modern Times)

Abstract This article tests Everett Wheeler’s hypothesis that the Greek concept of ankhínoia finds its equivalent in the 18th-century military writers’ notion of the coup d’oeil by comparing treatises on the art of war written in the two periods. After highlighting the different meanings of the coup d’oeil in 18th -century military terminology, Carl von Clausewitz’s approach is examined in his new conceptual way.

НЕУСТАЛЕНІСТЬ ЛЕКСИКО-ГРАМАТИЧНОЇ СИСТЕМИ РАННЬОВІЗАНТІЙСЬКОЇ ГРЕЦЬКОЇ МОВИ: ПРОЦЕСИ ТА ПРИЧИНИ

Вackground. The article examines the peculiarities of the early Byzantine Greek language at the main levels of the language structure: phonetic, grammatical and lexical. Methods. Descriptive, comparative, lexico-grammatical and linguistic-historical analysis. Results. The phenomena of simplification, unification, mixing of generic features and interpenetration of paradigms in the name system are analyzed. In the verb system, the process of mixing perfect and aorist forms in the lexical-semantic and grammatical-morphological plan, the irregularity of the future tense system, significant fluctuations in the use of periphrastic constructions with future and perfect meaning, the spread of analytical form formation, the formation of lexical-grammatical verbalization of the species category can be traced. In the participle system, there is a mixing of gender and case forms, a loss of relative-temporal functional distinction; active participles acquire the functions of the gerund. In the system of syntax, the prepositional use of cases is narrowed, and as a result of morphological changes affecting the subjunctive and optative paradigms, the usual rules of hypotaxis change. It is noted that during this period, two directions of the development of the Greek language developed and were clearly defined: the literary one, with the preservation of Atticistic tendencies, and the non-literary one, which sought to further develop the vernacular language. Linguistic, social, historical and cultural causes of language phenomena of the early Byzantine era are noted. The lexicon of the first centuries of Byzantium was influenced by word-formation models of the Latin language, and later New European and Eastern ones, and consistently used ancient Greek composites, however, often violating the usual models of composite word formation of the classical period. Conclusions. The processes of the development of the Greek language of the early Byzantine era are described, a tendency to significant morphonological, lexicо-grammatical and functional-semantic changes in the noun and verb system, which are characterized by considerable instability, is observed.

Revisiting the “Goods of Kisterna” in Mani, Southern Peloponnese. A Complicated Yet Captivating Storyline

This article reconsiders the textual and archaeological evidence on the delimitation and, most importantly, on the naming and the praised “goods” around or in “Kisterna”, a still disputable area situated in the NW (Messinia province) or southern (Laconia province) Mani peninsula. These are a Venetian document, as well as the French and Greek versions of “Chronicle of Morea”, the historical works of George Pachymeres, Nikephorus Gregoras, Makarios Melissenos and archaeological heritage, that is, the castle of Leuktro in Stoupa, Oriokastro in Ano Poula, Tainaro cape in Kinsternes bay. According to the interpretation introduced, the regional landscape and topography, the naming could potentially be associated with cisterns and basins where fish by-products preservation and processing was taken place. These workshops were known from the Roman period as cetariae and probably as “lakkoi” in the Byzantine era. The article by its structure includes the parts “Introduction – Aims”, “Deconstructing a) the term and the reason of the “theme” and “Deconstructing b) the naming”, “Revisiting a) the primary sources” and “Revisiting b) the archaeological evidence” as well as “Conclusions”.

Owl symbolism in Greek civilization over the last 5000 years: social perceptions and implications for conservation

Knowing people are willing to protect wildlife when they feel connected with nature, we used owls as a case study to review owl symbolism in Greek history (2900 BC − 2000 AD). For five millennia, Greek civilization thrived and used owls as a dominant symbol in major cultural expressions. Consequently, a broad spectrum of social beliefs evolved towards owls. Until 1500 BC, they were mainly used as decorative attributes. During the Mycenaean era, though, owls began to be worshipped as eerie creatures in funeral rituals, inducing fear and respect. When Greek civilization peaked during the Archaic, Classical and Hellenistic periods, an important shift is noticed in social perceptions. Owls are transformed into major symbols of wisdom, power, justice and divinity, connected to the goddess Athena and the city of Athens. Their significance faded in the subsequent Roman period and was absent throughout the Byzantine era, for 1500 years. When owls reappeared after 1800 AD in cultural aspects of modern Greece, society again considered them fearsome creatures. We finalize our historical review with a recent survey in Greece, capturing up-to-date trends. Our survey indicates that today: (i) owls are mostly considered beneficial and deserving of protection, but part of the population still perceives owls as bad omens, powerful and scary; (ii) elementary concepts of raptors’ importance in ecosystems are still unknown to many; (iii) a small but impactful percentage still deliberately kill house-nesting owls, outlining the need to educate and provide nest-boxes as a relocation solution. By performing a thorough review of historical perceptions toward owls, important insights are offered on how to positively connect people with their wildlife and cultural heritage. We claim that people who understand how nature was related to their country in the past are inspired and more inclined to protect it.

Unveiling the past: Utilizing satellite imagery archives to study archaeological landscapes in the northeastern Nile Delta, Egypt

This paper investigates the utilization of satellite imagery archives in the northeastern Nile Delta to examine and explore the evolution of archaeological landscapes. The study incorporates optical satellite imagery from multiple sensors, including Landsat, ASTER, and CORONA, in addition to historical topographic maps, and digital elevation data. The methodology involves employing Support Vector Machine (SVM) algorithm, spatial analysis, and analyzing vegetation indices. The findings reveal significant landscape changes during the period from the prehistoric to the Byzantine era, influenced by natural factors such as sea level changes and land subsidence. Moreover, the landscape changed after the construction of the Aswan High Dam, influenced by human activities such as agriculture and urbanization. The study was successful in detecting the remains of the Tanitic branch, an ancient branch of the Nile River. Additionally, the analysis of vegetation indices showed crop anomalies, which may be indicative of buried structures. However, further investigations, including ground surveys and excavations, are needed for validation. The research contributes to the understanding of the region's historical and cultural significance, highlights the impact of human activities on archaeological sites, and underscores the importance of preserving cultural heritage in the face of environmental changes and urban development.

SEMIOTIC APPROACH IN THE ARCHITECTURE OF CENTRAL CROSS-SHAPED ORTHODOX CHURCHES

The scientific research highlights the problem of shaping in the cruciform Orthodox churches architecture and the placement of this type of sacred structures in accordance with urban planning and natural conditions. It is revealed the three-dimensional solution of the temple, in which the supporting structures form an architectural space based on the three-dimensional cross symbol. The cross-dome system, which became widespread in the cruciform Orthodox churches architectural structures, was developed in the early Byzantine era. Probably, its origin is based on the late antiquity architecture in the form of reconstruction of ancient Roman temples and Syrian religious buildings. Later it spread to the Caucasus, Palestine and North Africa, the Balkans and, further, to the ancient Rus' territory. The use of relatively new structures will be relevant for the Orthodox churches design in difficult geological conditions or the disclosure, if necessary, of a more complex architectural image. One of the sacred architecture features is the architectural image formation through the sacred symbols use. It is proposed to use the cross symbol in accordance with the name of Orthodox churches. For this purpose, it is identified cross symbol typological groups, divided into two main epochs: pre-Christian and Christian. It is defined the typological groups used in Orthodox architecture, which are divided into five periods. Some of the cross symbol typological groups are presented below in the conceptual model of a centric cruciform Orthodox church. It is identified five main signs of the cross symbol use in an Orthodox church: in the architectural space, exterior, interior, plan, and facade shaping. It is provided a conceptual model of a centric cruciform Orthodox church, in which all five main features of the cross symbol use in an Orthodox church are implemented.

Metaverse in Architecture: An Approach to Documenting and Exploring the Egyptian Heritage Through Metaverse

Architecture has significantly relied on expansive visualization tools that have developed throughout the years, starting from preliminary drawings and manual rendering to three-dimensional (3D) presentation and digitalized modeling, 3D printing, and laser cutting. With the latest internet revolution, Web 3.0, being introduced and evolved, architects are now acquainted with the metaverse as the revolutionary movement, allowing a cyber teleport from visual presentations to virtual experiences through cyberspace. This research's vision is presented scientifically by giving users the ability to walk through Egypt's historical timeline in the metaverse through virtual portals, discovering the Egyptian heritage in built-in chronological order, starting with the Pharaonic, Greek, Roman, Coptic, and Byzantine eras, then passing through the Abbasid and Mamluk eras, till reaching the foreign attacks and the Ottoman era. It proposes the idea of the aforementioned journey to virtually document and explore the abandoned, ruined, and lost Egyptian heritage to enhance the community's real-life economy and work growth. An analytical study is conducted to identify the architectural challenges by analyzing local and international case studies: Tutera and Liberland. Hence, comparing the results of both case studies will expand architecture's competency in the metaverse. Subsequently, this study is using the artificial intelligence (AI) platform Midjourney to visualize and utilize the immersive experience of virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) systems, in addition to merging the holographic elements with the physical architectural elements to achieve the optimum user experience. Finally, this research will explore how architecture plays a major role in designing the metaverse, investigate the plausibility of the tools above, and suggest guidelines for the establishment of the proposed strategy to retrieve the Egyptian heritage virtually, which will benefit both Egypt's socio-economical aspect and interested individuals from all around the world. Hence, implementing the eighth sustainable development goal (SDG), "Decent Work and Economic Growth", resulted in broadening the architecture scope in the metaverse.

Diritto casistico alla corte imperiale di Costantinopoli. Presentazione dell’opera a cura di Dieter Simon e Diether Roderich Reinsch (Milano, 14 aprile 2023)

Abstract On 14 April 2023 the presentation of the book Ἡ Πεῖρα - Die Peira: Ein juristisches Lehrbuch des 11. Jahrhunderts aus Konstantinopel was held at the University of Milan. The work consists of an edition, translation and commentary of a collection of jurisprudential cases from the Byzantine era. The publication of the two volumes, edited by Dieter Simon and Diether Roderich Reinsch, created an opportunity for discussion and dialogue on various topics pertaining to Byzantine law, for which the Peira is an important source of knowledge.

The Red-lacquered ceramics of the Late Antique-Pre-Byzantine period Discovered in the Gonio-Apsaros area in 2018-2022

The article explores red-lacquered ceramics discovered in Gonio-Apsaros in recent years. The southwestern Georgia has yielded many diverse red-lacquered ceramics from the ancient and late antique periods, less from the early Byzantine era. However, recently more have been discovered, forming an intriguing category within the kitchenware. Being imported goods, they provide insights into the region's interactions with the world.The fragments of bowls (Late Roman C) including mouth, body, base, mouth-wall, fit into three distinct forms (10A, 10C, 3G/F) identified by Hayes. They are defined by orange, fine-grained ware, flared body and a mouth of varying cross-sections, separated by a delicate groove, traces of reddish varnish on the inside. A bowl fragment bears a cross-shaped mark with rings and can be associated with the types 67 and 68 of Hayes (LRC), with thickened, upturned mouths of polygonal or quadrangular cross-sections, light reddish-brown and fine-grained ware with occasional admixtures, somtimes remnants of pinkish-reddish varnish.
 2019Due to the Byzantine Empire's expansion eastward, parts of Lazica became influenced by Byzantine economy, culture, politics. Apsaros fell within the Byzantine borders from the late 5th century. The growing discovery of materials near the Roman castle highlights the newfound significance of Apsaros increasing interest in it.keywords: Late Antiquity-Early-Byzantine period, South-west Georgia, Ceramics, Red-lacquered ceramics

Sepphoris: A Mosaic of Cultures by Zeev Weiss

Reviewed by: Sepphoris: A Mosaic of Cultures by Zeev Weiss Yitz Landes Zeev Weiss. Sepphoris: A Mosaic of Cultures. Treasures of the Past: The David and Jemima Jeselsohn Library. Jerusalem: Yad Ben-Zvi, 2021. 256 pp. [in Hebrew] Given Sepphoris’s importance in antiquity and the intensity of archeological study at the site over the past decades, an up-to-date presentation of the ancient history of the city has long been a desideratum. Zeev Weiss is, without a doubt, the best person for this task. Having worked at the site since the 1980s, most of that time as the head of the Hebrew University’s expedition, Weiss’s knowledge of Sepphoris is unparalleled, and his intimate familiarity with every one of its structures and with the plethora of relevant textual sources from antiquity is apparent on every page of his Sepphoris: A Mosaic of Cultures. [End Page 182] The book is organized into eight chapters. The first two chapters provide an overview of the general history of Sepphoris/Diocaesarea from the Hellenistic through the Byzantine periods. The following two chapters are dedicated to the material remains from the Roman and Byzantine periods; these two chapters form the heart of the book, amounting to one hundred of the book’s pages, and Weiss discusses dozens of buildings—large and small, public and private—as well as various aspects of the city’s infrastructure, such as sources of water and city streets. The fifth chapter is a detailed description of the mosaic art in Sepphoris, which Weiss argues “combines Eastern and Western artistic traditions,” that is, those of Antioch and North Africa (182). The sixth chapter deals with the evidence from the necropolis; Jewish burial has long interested Weiss, but unfortunately, the evidence for Sepphoris has only partially been uncovered due to limitations on excavating burial sites in the State of Israel. In chapter 7, Weiss seeks to characterize the religious character of the Jews of Sepphoris throughout the periods under discussion by utilizing the evidence gathered in prior chapters. The book ends with a chapter on the city’s gradual demise at the end of the Byzantine era, briefly discussing the history of the village that existed at the site until 1948 (skipping over how and why the village ceased to exist). Most of Weiss’s arguments pertain to interpreting the remains of specific edifices, but given their sheer number it is impossible to review them all here. Nevertheless, several broader conclusions, particularly regarding urban life, are of note. Based on the layout of the Roman city, Weiss establishes that “there is no sign of separation between houses of different sorts or even a division into neighborhoods or into areas of habitation by socioeconomic class nor religious or social affiliation” (96). (Unlike at most Galilean sites, it is possible to reconstruct the profile of the domestic types, as a significant portion of the city has been excavated.) Moreover, because urban culture and construction in fifth-century Sepphoris were so vibrant, Weiss argues against the scholarly claim, most prominently associated with Uzi Leibner, that there was a decline in rural settlement in Galilee and the surrounding regions in this general period (45).1 In light of the “pagan” nature of much of the urban environment and art in the city, Weiss also concludes that many of the Jews of Sepphoris, of various socioeconomic levels, “redefined their attitude toward Hellenistic-Roman culture” as they adopted “foreign customs” seemingly at odds with Judaism (218). Finally, Weiss argues that there was no specific traumatic event such as military conquest or natural disaster that led to Sepphoris’s demise, but rather that it was “a long and complicated process, one instigated by various causes—not necessarily related to one [End Page 183] another—that ultimately led to the contraction of Sepphoris, its decay, and the abandonment of entire sections of the city,” particularly during the latter decades of the sixth century (231). Given the book’s structure, the text can occasionally feel repetitive or out of order. “The House of Dionysius,” a large residence located in the upper city, so called due to its floor mosaics presenting Dionysian themes, makes its first appearance in the...

Redefining the Margins: Intertextual and Secondary Characters in Children’s historical novels.

The historical novel for children is the kind of Literature that transmits to young readers the historical knowledge in a pleasant and easy way, thanks to its entertaining and recreational character. The fictional heroes in most children's historical novels are social examples for the young readers, who adopt behaviors and motivations through observation. Additionally, the postmodern attestation of History as narration, with the appointment of microhistory - which is favored when the psychography of fictional heroes is on the forthground and when historical facts are interpreted from different perspectives and under various visual angles - spur many writers to provide marginal characters with space as well as speech.
 Bearing in mind that the byzantine era is a common subject in Children’s Literature and contemporary novelists try to educate children and at the same time bring out Byzantium's charm either by highlighting neglected historic events or by examining already known faces and facts from a fresh angle and given the fact that the concept of intertextuality in literature is a way to build up interpretive communities among young readers, this paper examines Greek writer’s, Penelope Maximos, five historical novels for children entitled as In the years of Alexios Komninos, (Stochastis, 1984), The first crusaders in Byzantium; 1096-1099 AD (Stochastis, 1989), Emmanouil Komninos. The knight emperor (Stochastis, 1990), The downfall of Thessaloniki. In the years of Andronikos Komninos (Stochastis, 1987) and Close to Athenais (Astir, 1972). More specifically, we will focus on the way Maximos attempted to make “visible” fictional characters who were until recently considered of less or least importance; Minors and adults who were being oppresed during the Byzantine era, such as slaves, suddenly become protagonists surrounding historic characters and, thanks to their presence, make the plot roll smoothly. In this paper will be also pointed out the way the writer chose to present to young readers female characters and their efforts not only to express their emotions freely, but also to interfere with Byzantine society and fight for their rights, in order to point out to the juvenile readers paths, thoughts and life idealism.

Love is Blind! in Byzantium The Blind Cupid Figure in Byzantine Art Through The Middle Ages

Antik dönem sanatında çok sevilen Eros, yetişkin rollerini oynayan tombul oğlanlar veya kanatlı/kanatsız putti imgeler şeklinde, circus konulu tasvirlerde, dövüş, her türden av ve kovalamaca sahnelerinde, sarkofaj konteksinde cenaze sanatında, sıkıcı tarımsal faaliyetleri neşeli ve heyecan uyandıran aktivitelere dönüştüren yaramaz çocuklar olarak tasvir edilmişlerdir. Bu uygulamaların Bizans sanatında devam ettiği görülür. Kimi zaman bağ bozumu sahnelerinde, euchariste (ökariste) bağlamında ya da öteki dünya ile ilişkilendirilerek cennete giden yolda görev alarak kristolojik sembolizm dâhilinde kullanılmışlardır. Erken Hristiyanlık dönemi katakomp resimlerinden Ortaçağın sonuna kadarki çeşitli Bizans eserlerinde yer alan Cupid figürünün ikonografisi iki kavramı barındırır: Tanrı aşkı ve dünyevi aşk. Etimolojisi ile bir Hıristiyan adaptasyonu olarak karşımıza çıkar zira sevgi/aşk anlamına gelen eros kelimesinin -dini ya da profan kavramsal bir yer edinmesi küçük aşk tanrısını ikiye bölmemiş zaten geçmişte de aşkın her türlü yüzünü temsil etmesi ile kişilere yabancı bir figür değildir. Hıristiyan metinlere nüfuz eden Θείος Έρως (İlahi Eros) kavramını Tanrı ile insan arasındaki sevgiyi anlatmanın bir yöntemi olarak kullanır; öte yandan manastır pratikleri figüre simgesel yaklaşım göstermiş, zengin dini metin ve figüratif içeriği ile dini sanatta sıradışı uygulamalar ortaya koymuştur; seküler edebiyatta ise başlıca konusu aşk olan destan ve romanslar incelendiğinde ulaşılan belirgin özelliklere sahip bir eros tarifine rastlanmış, bu tarifin ortaya konan sanatsal üretimler ile örtüştüğü görülür. Bizans sanatının farklı dönemlerine tarihlenen metal, fildişi, mozaik, dokuma, elyazma resmi ya da fresko gibi farklı ürün gruplarına ait örneklere yansıyan tasvirler figürün kavramsal boyutlarını yansıtır. Ancak Aşk Tanrısı Cupid -ya da diğer isimleriyle Eros veya Amor- Helenistik ve Roma sanatında hiç kör temsil edilmemesine karşın, Bizans Sanatında sıra dışı bir körlük örneği gösterir. Bu araştırma yazısı, çok-tanrılı geçmişin hatırasını taşıyan bir figürün ağır başlı Bizans kültür ortamında, dinin tüm ağırlığına rağmen anlamını devam ettirmesi sürecinde üstlendiği kavramlar uyarınca ortaya konan sanatsal temsillerinin ikonografisi üzerine bir çalışmadır.

The Lost Cameo, the Vanished Statue of the Emperor and Constantine as a New Alexander

The aim of this paper is to propose a reinterpretation of the meaning of the lost colossus of Constantine the Great from the Forum of his name in Constantinople, in the light of the iconography of the emperor on the cameo from the cathedral in the Pomeranian town of Cammin. Although the gem was lost during the last war, it is known to us thanks to archival photographs and the plaster cast housed at Göttingen University. On this basis, Gerda Bruns associated the jewel with the statue of Constantine on the porphyry column in the New Rome, and her identification has since been widely accepted by the scholarly milieu. In recent years one has been able to observe growing popularity of this interpretation among researchers, who however refrain in their studies from pointing to the consequences of such a reconstruction of the statue’s form.
 The author of this paper points out that Constantine purposefully chose the iconographical type of Alexander-ktistes as a model for his own representation in order to allude to his great predecessor and the founder of a number of cities which bore his name. The iconography of the statue became then a part of the programme of the celebrations arranged on the occasion of the dedication of Constantinople, in which numerous references to Alexander played the key role. This new understanding of the colossus, placing its significance within the frames of political propaganda, better matches the actual historical circumstances and the ruler’s attitude towards Christendom than traditional interpretations which recognised the statue as Helios or Apollo, and thus introduced an incoherence — difficult to explain — in Constantine’s attitude towards the new religion. This cumbersome question, which baffled the inquisitive minds already in the Constantinople of the Byzantine era, will be considered unsubstantial if we correctly interpret the monument on the Forum solely in the political and propagandistic context.

PHOTIUS, ΑΝΑΛΦΑΒHΤΟΣ AND ATTICIST LEXICA

AbstractPhotius’ lexicon contains an entry on the rare adjectiveἀναλφάβητος(‘illiterate, ignorant’) that cites Phrynichus Atticista. Based on this testimony, the whole passage has been edited as fr. 19 of Phrynichus’Praeparatio sophistica. This article demonstrates that in this lemma Photius conflates material which comes from Phrynichus and one other source, hypothetically identified with the anonymousAntiatticistlexicon, which preserves an abridged entry onἀναλφάβητοςand which Photius employed in the compilation of his lexicon. The article also explores the possibility that the work in which Phrynichus dealt withἀναλφάβητοςwas not thePraeparatio sophisticabut theEclogue.This hypothesis requires challenging some assumptions concerning the transmission of Atticist lexicography in the Byzantine era, chiefly the assumption that material from theEcloguedid not circulate at Byzantium before the fourteenth century.