Brazilian Regional Atmospheric Modeling System Research Articles

Simulation of an orographic gravity wave above the Amazon rainforest and its influence on gases transport near the surface

The influence of the topography at the ATTO site (Amazon Tall Tower Observatory) in the formation of Gravity Waves (GW) was investigated in this work. The role of these waves in gas transport on different heights in the nocturnal boundary layer, was also investigated. For this, were analyzed: experimental data of wind speed, temperature, humidity and CO2 to identify the GW. Furthermore satellite images, ECMWF ERA5 (European Center for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts) reanalysis, and numerical simulations from the mesoscale JULES-CCATT-BRAMS model (Brazilian Regional Atmospheric Modeling System) version 5.3 were used to perform GW simulations. The simulations involved two configurations (Control-With Topography and No Topography). The sattelite images made it clear that the GW was not associated with convective activities. The simulations showed clear ondulatory signs in air temperature, vertical component of the wind, and gases like CO and O3. Moreover, they also reveal that the wave originated by the presence of the local topography and this orograph gravity wave had and important role in the transport of gases above the ATTO site.

Influence of air pollutants on pneumonia hospitalizations among children in a town in the Brazilian Legal Amazon region: a time series study.

Exposure to particulate material produced as a result of increased agricultural activity may increase the number of pneumonia hospitalizations among children. We hope to contribute to the knowledge base through highlighting the environmental mechanisms involved in this outcome and optimizing pollutant control policies. To investigate the association between pneumonia hospitalizations among children and presence of environmental pollutants in a town in the Brazilian Legal Amazon region. Time series study conducted in the town of Tangará da Serra, Mato Grosso (MT), Brazil. A total of 158 children aged 0 to 10 years participated in the study. Data on environmental variables and pollutants were extracted daily through the Coupled Chemistry-Aerosol-Tracer Transport model coupled to Brazilian Regional Atmospheric Modeling System (CCATT-BRAMS). Meteorological data were provided by the Weather Forecasting and Climate Studies Center (CPTEC). There was greater frequency of pneumonia hospitalizations in the months of transition between the rainy and dry seasons, with a prevalence ratio 2.4 times higher than in other periods. For environmental pollutants, there was a significant positive correlation between particulate matter (PM2.5) and pneumonia hospitalizations (correlation 0.11), with more admissions on the days when PM2.5 levels were highest (averages of 6.6 µg/m3 when there were no admissions and 13.11 µg/m3 on days with two or more admissions). The higher the PM2.5 level was, the greater the frequency of hospitalizations also was. Children living in peripheral areas had higher prevalence of pneumonia hospitalizations in the dry period than those who were living in the town center.

The impact of future urban scenarios on a severe weather case in the metropolitan area of São Paulo

In this work, convective parameters are applied, based on numerical simulations made with Brazilian Regional Atmospheric Modeling System (BRAMS) model, to a severe weather case which occurred in the metropolitan area of Sao Paulo (MASP). Scenarios of future urban area growth and increase of building heights were made to evaluate changes in convective parameters and rainfall for the study region. Using factorial planning and factor separation methods, we found that the urban area growth predicted for 2030 is capable of increasing the amount of precipitation, mainly due to the land use change from rural to urban. In the scenario of building heights increasing, it was found a tendency for rainfall suppression. The urban area for 2030 is the major factor contributing to increasing atmospheric instability and wind shear. Vertical urban growth causes an increase in atmospheric instability and a decrease in wind shear. The interaction between urban area and building height factors increases the amount of precipitation and storm motion over the MASP.

Características Meteorológicas do Ambiente Sinótico e de Meseoescala Associadas ao Evento de Tornado na Cidade de Xanxerê – SC, em Abril de 2015

During the afternoon hours (around 03:00 p.m. local time) of 20 April 2015, an tornado event occurred in the city of Xanxere - SC, which was rated as “F2” according to the Fujita scale. The above-mentioned tornado accounted for 4 deaths and 97 injuries and the total damages were estimated at R$100 million. According to the literature in this region there are atmospheric conditions that are necessary and favorable to the occurrence of severe storms with potential for tornado formation. Only in the state of Santa Catarina, 10 tornadoes were confirmed between 1976 and 2000, which highlights the importance of studies and the verification of severe storms in this region. In this context, the main objective of this work is to characterize and understand the synoptic and mesoescale environment associated with the storm formation that originated the Xanxere tornado, and verify the adequacy of these synoptic features with those described in the conceptual models for severe storms. Accordingly, we have used data of relative humidity, vertical motion (omega) and wind of the ERA INTERIM reanalysis data with spatial resolution of 50 km. In addition, a high-resolution numerical modeling experiment using the Brazilian Regional Atmospheric Modeling System (BRAMS) mesoscale model was carried out to find some preliminary mesoscale environment aspects associated with the Xanxere tornado. Finally, the results showed that the synoptic and mesoscale environments were favorable to the formation and development of severe storms with potential for the formation of tornadoes in a large part of the west of Santa Catarina, mainly near the municipality of Xanxere. It is important to emphasize that the dynamics, thermodynamic factors and forcing mechanisms were present and acting together in a predecessor scenario (hour before) to the event.

Trajectory Modelling of Atmospheric Pollutants Associated with Aircraft Emissions for Air Quality Assessment

Aviation is suffering a large increase in recent years and as result there is a consequent increase in emissions of air pollutants. The highest exposure levels of air pollution in airports and near them are found in the Landing and Take-off (LTO) cycle responsible for negative impacts on air quality. The city of Rio de Janeiro, in the coastal region of the South East of Brazil, has two major airports; the International airport and one for domestic flights. Both are near the Guanabara Bay (GB), in Metropolitan Region of Rio de Janeiro (MRRJ). In this research, it was verified the pollutant trajectories emitted by these two airports using the Brazilian Regional Atmospheric Modelling System (BRAMS) to generate wind fields in the MRRJ. From the wind fields, 3D kinematic trajectories Lagrangian model was used to calculate the pollutant trajectories. Atmospheric instability indices were tested from the BRAMS simulations to verify the days with more stable atmospheric conditions in winter month. The Total Totals index (TT) was selected to be more appropriate for the purpose of this study. Obtained results showed that the cities of Rio de Janeiro and Duque de Caxias, in the western of the MRRJ, are critical points to be affected continually by pollutant transport due to the prevailing meteorological conditions, harming the air quality in the region. These models captured the influence of mesoscale and large-scale systems, showing the dependence of the trajectories of both systems related to the season and time of day. They are important tools in decision-making for the control of emissions, contributing to better management of urban air quality.

Portability with efficiency of the advection of BRAMS between multi‐core and many‐core architectures

SummaryThe continuous growth of spatial resolution and forecasting period in current atmospheric models demands increasing processing power supplied by supercomputers with hundreds or thousands of nodes. Currently, most of these models are operationally executed on supercomputers composed of nodes with tens of cores (multi‐core architecture). Newer supercomputer generations have nodes with multi‐core processors coupled to processing accelerators, typically graphics cards with hundreds of cores (many‐core architecture). The rewriting of model codes to use both architectures efficiently, that is, executing with or without graphics cards, represents a challenge because these models have hundreds of thousands of lines. The OpenMP programming interface proposed decades ago is a de facto standard that efficiently explores multi‐core architectures. A new programming interface, OpenACC, is being proposed for many‐core architectures. These two programming interfaces are similar, because they are based on parallelization directives for the concurrent execution of threads. This work shows the feasibility of writing a single portable code embedding both interfaces and presenting acceptable efficiency when executed on nodes with multi‐core or many‐core architecture. The code chosen as a case study is the advection of scalars, a part of the dynamics of the regional atmospheric model Brazilian Regional Atmospheric Modeling System (BRAMS). The dynamics of a model is harder to parallelize because of data dependencies between adjacent grid points. Single‐node executions of the advections of scalars for different grid sizes using OpenMP or OpenACC yielded similar speed‐ups, showing the feasibility of the proposed approach. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Numerical Modeling of Air Pollutants Emitted by Waterway Transportation

The world maritime transportation is suffering a large increase in recent years and as a result of this increased on global trade, there is a consequent increase in waterway transportation and demand for fossil fuels, resulting in emissions of air pollutants. Consequently, the impact of transport emissions on climate change was put on the list of priorities. It has a high fuel demand as a result of continuous use of main engines for propulsion, electricity and heat production. The highest exposure levels of air pollution are found in ports and near them because most of the world fleet is positioned in these areas. The port of Rio de Janeiro city, in the Southeast Brazilian coastal, is inserted in the Guanabara Bay (GB), where the breezes recirculate pollutants in Metropolitan Region of Rio de Janeiro (MRRJ). Therefore, the aim of this research was to use the Brazilian Regional Atmospheric Modeling System (BRAMS) to generate the wind fields in the MRRJ and to calculate the trajectories of pollutants emitted on GB related to the waterway transportation, using a 3D kinematic trajectories model. Results demonstrated that for the periods analysed, the Central and west areas in the coastal region of the Rio de Janeiro city were the local most affected in the summer. In winter the trajectories reached the cities of the Rio de Janeiro and Duque de Caxias. Both in summer and winter, the trajectories followed towards the South Atlantic Ocean in the morning. Conclusions about this study show the need of decision-making process for better management of waterway transportation sector, improving the harmful effects on air quality in cities located in coastal regions.

MESOSCALE WEATHER SIMULATIONS OF NORTHERN PERU-2015 USING BRAZILIAN REGIONAL ATMOSPHERIC MODELING SYSTEM-BRAMS

The warm of the tropical pacific ocean generate the El Nino phenomenon. The Peru between the years 1997 and 1998 took big materials losses and human victims because the presence of EL NINO. Now the scientists try to make a prediction of the magnitude of natural phenomenon using different methods of simulation. Our objective are study the changes in the weather variables such that: temperature, wind fields and relative humidity, from October to November in 2015 and compared with years 1997 and 1998. We used the BRAMS (Brazilian Regional Atmospheric Modelling System ) model; with this model We could analyze the differences of temporal and spatial changes for the weather variables. The variation of temperature in northern Peru was around 18 and 29 degrees Celsius , relative humidity was around 35 and 100% of the coast, the wind fields were 2.7 km/h to 9.9 km/h . The Temperature at regions of interest: Tumbes, Piura, Lambayeque and La Libertad presented a decrease in 9, 5,6 and 6 degrees celsius from octuber to November, respectively. In conclusion, the weather variables have presented a decrease in November 2015, these behavior did not occur in the years 1997 and 1998.

RELAÇÃO ENTRE A TEMPERATURA DA SUPERFÍCIE DO MAR E A CAMADA DE MISTURA OCEÂNICA SOB A PASSAGEM DE CICLONES EXTRATROPICAIS NO ATLÂNTICO SUDOESTE

Neste artigo investigou-se a importância da variação da camada de mistura oceânica (CMO) na temperatura da superfície do mar (TSM), sob a influencia de ciclones extratropicais atmosféricos. Um modelo simplificado de CMO oriundo do modelo HYCOM (Hybrid Coordinate Ocean Model), baseado no modelo de Kraus e Turner, foi inserido como uma sub-rotina do modelo BRAMS (Brazilian Regional Atmospheric Modelling System), para atualizar a TSM a cada passo de tempo no modelo atmosférico. A CMO-BRAMS caracterizou-se por estreitar durante as trajetórias das baixas pressões, embora não tenha indicado um significativo aprofundamento seguindo o anticiclone da retaguarda do sistema frontal. A TSM calculada pela CMO do BRAMS apresentou grande variação (1°C-5°C) nos instantes iniciais. Entretanto, uma vez ajustada houve pouca variação da TSM no decorrer do tempo (1,0°C-2,5°C), com o aprofundamento (estreitamento) da CMO associada à diminuição (aumento) à temperatura.

Air quality forecasting system for Southeastern Brazil

Southeastern Brazil, the most populous and developed region of the country, faces various environmental problems associated with the growth of its population in urban areas. It is the most industrialized area in the country, comprising the metropolitan areas of Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Belo Horizonte, and other major cities. Air quality is a major concern, because the reported concentrations of certain regulated pollutants, typically ozone and fine particulate, have exceeded national standards. Due to the difficulty in taking measurements over many different areas, air quality modeling is a useful tool to estimate air pollutant concentrations. For southeastern Brazil, air quality modeling has been performed mostly with the Brazilian Regional Atmospheric Modeling System with Simplified Photochemical Module and the Weather Research and Forecast with Chemistry models. One of the main objectives was to study the evolution of air quality associated with improved vehicle emission factors in urban areas, the impact of climate change on air quality, and the relationship between pollutant concentrations and health. Knowledge of mobile source emission factors has been continuously expanded by in-tunnel measurements and dynamometer protocols, which provide accurate data as inputs to photochemical air quality models. The spatial distribution of the mobile source emissions was constructed based on open access data related to the streets and traffic distribution. The mobile emission module was combined to the chemistry modeling and this implementation can be an example to be applied to other places that do not have a spatial distribution of this kind of source. Forecasts of pollutant concentrations can inform public policies, including those addressing the effects of pollutants on health of the general population, and studies of the impacts of using different fuels and implementation of emissions regulations programs.

Hydrometeorological effects of historical land-conversion in an ecosystem-atmosphere model of Northern South America

Abstract. This work investigates how the integrated land use of northern South America has affected the present day regional patterns of hydrology. A model of the terrestrial ecosystems (ecosystem demography model 2: ED2) is combined with an atmospheric model (Brazilian Regional Atmospheric Modeling System: BRAMS). Two realizations of the structure and composition of terrestrial vegetation are used as the sole differences in boundary conditions that drive two simulations. One realization captures the present day vegetation condition that includes deforestation and land conversion, the other is an estimate of the potential structure and composition of the region's vegetation without human influence. Model output is assessed for differences in resulting hydrometeorology. The simulations suggest that the history of land conversion in northern South America is not associated with a significant precipitation bias in the northern part of the continent, but has shown evidence of a negative bias in mean regional evapotranspiration and a positive bias in mean regional runoff. Also, negative anomalies in evaporation rates showed pattern similarity with areas where deforestation has occurred. In the central eastern Amazon there was an area where deforestation and abandonment had lead to an overall reduction of above-ground biomass, but this was accompanied by a shift in forest composition towards early successional functional types and grid-average-patterned increases in annual transpiration. Anomalies in annual precipitation showed mixed evidence of consistent patterning. Two focus areas were identified where more consistent precipitation anomalies formed, one in the Brazilian state of Pará where a dipole pattern formed, and one in the Bolivian Gran Chaco, where a negative anomaly was identified. These locations were scrutinized to understand the basis of their anomalous hydrometeorologic response. In both cases, deforestation led to increased total surface albedo, driving decreases in net radiation, boundary layer moist static energy and ultimately decreased convective precipitation. In the case of the Gran Chaco, decreased precipitation was also a result of decreased advective moisture transport, indicating that differences in local hydrometeorology may manifest via teleconnections with the greater region.

Impact of enriched analyses on regional numerical forecasts over southeastern South America during SALLJEX

During the warm season 2002-2003, the South American Low-Level Jet Experiment (SALLJEX) was carried out in southeastern South America. Taking advantage of the unique database collected in the region, a set of analyses is generated for the SALLJEX period assimilating all available data. The spatial and temporal resolution of this new set of analyses is higher than that of analyses available up to present for southeastern South America. The aim of this paper is to determine the impact of assimilating data into initial fields on mesoscale forecasts in the region, using the Brazilian Regional Atmospheric Modeling System (BRAMS) with particular emphasis on the South American Low-Level Jet (SALLJ) structure and on rainfall forecasts. For most variables, using analyses with data assimilated as initial fields has positive effects on short term forecast. Such effect is greater in wind variables, but not significant in forecasts longer than 24 hours. In particular, data assimilation does not improve forecasts of 24-hour accumulated rainfall, but it has slight positive effects on accumulated rainfall between 6 and 12 forecast hours. As the main focus is on the representation of the SALLJ, the effect of data assimilation in its forecast was explored. Results show that SALLJ is fairly predictable however assimilating additional observation data has small impact on the forecast of SALLJ timing and intensity. The strength of the SALLJ is underestimated independently of data assimilation. However, Root mean square error (RMSE) and BIAS values reveal the positive effect of data assimilation up to 18-hours forecasts with a greater impact near higher topography.

Implementation of a two-way coupled atmospheric-hydrological system for environmental modeling at regional scale

This work describes the two-way coupling performed between the regional atmospheric model Brazilian Regional Atmospheric Modeling System (BRAMS) and the hydrological model MGB-IPH. As a first step of the atmosphere-hydrology coupling, only the water balance variables were coupled. Differences in temporal and spatial scales between MGH-IPH and BRAMS were analyzed. By default, MGB-IPH has a daily time step whereas BRAMS uses smaller time steps. Thus, accumulated rainfall values from BRAMS were used to feed MGB-IPH. On the other hand, daily values of evapotranspiration from MGB-IPH were provided to BRAMS. This procedure was assumed as a daily loop in the simulations. Differences in spatial scales were avoided by using the same grid size (10 × 10 km) in both models, in such a way that neither upscaling nor downscaling was necessary. The coupled system was tested for the Rio Grande basin situated in south-eastern Brazil by comparing results from BRAMS with results from the coupled system for the same period, with the same input data. Outputs from the runs were compared to water vapor satellite images. The results from the coupled model tests indicated that its predictions of rainfall distribution were more accurate than BRAMS.

Comparative Skill of Numerical Weather Forecasts in Eastern Amazonia

The present study evaluates the performance of three numerical weather forecasting models: Global Forecast System (GFS), Brazilian Regional Atmospheric Modelling System (BRAMS) and ETA Regional Model (ETA), by means of the Mean Error (ME) and the Root Mean Square Error (RMSE), during the most rainy four months period (January to April 2012) on Eastern Amazonia. The models displayed errors of superestimation and underestimation with respect to the observed precipitation, mainly over center-north of Pará and all of Amapá, where the precipitation is higher. Among the analyzed models, GFS shows the best performance, except during January and March, when the model to underestimated precipitation, possibly due to the anomalously high values recorded.

ESTUDO DO CAMPO DE VENTO DO RIO DE JANEIRO: UTILIZANDO MODELOS NUMÉRICOS ATMOSFÉRICOS NA IDENTIFICAÇÃO DAS ÁREAS ATINGIDAS PELA EMISSÃO DE FULIGEM DA CSA EM 2010

O uso de modelos na ciência é antigo. O seu grande valor está na possibilidade de organizar a complexidade da realidade em um quadro simplificado, permitindo obter conclusões que possam ser reaplicadas ao mundo real. O uso de modelos para representação da atmosfera tem sido muito difundido, principalmente os modelos numéricos, que são importantes para prognosticar a formação e evolução de sistemas de escala regional, como também avaliar fatores ambientais dinâmicos e termodinâmicos em escala local. O Brazilian Regional Atmospheric Modeling System (BRAMS) é um exemplo de modelo numérico atmosférico, desenvolvido por pesquisadores brasileiros, para representar melhor o estado da atmosfera dos trópicos, que admite resolução suficiente para prognosticar fenômenos meteorológicos, proporcionando bons resultados com diferentes resoluções espaciais para uma mesma área. É possível obter alta resolução espacial em uma área de maior interesse enquanto cobre uma área muito maior com menor resolução. Devido a essas características, o BRAMS foi escolhido para ser aplicado na cidade do Rio de Janeiro que, com grande contraste no relevo, alternando planícies e maciços ao longo da costa, apresenta dificuldades para circulação do ar. Posteriormente, utilizando os resultados do BRAMS é possível alimentar outro modelo, chamado de Trajetórias Cinemáticas 3D, que permite visualizar a trajetória dos poluentes em três dimensões. Assim, o objetivo deste trabalho é testar e validar os modelos BRAMS e Trajetórias Cinemáticas 3D, utilizando o episódio de emissão de fuligem pela Companhia Siderúrgica do Atlântico (CSA), ocorrido em dezembro de 2010.

Reducing Time Delays in Computing Numerical Weather Models at Regional and Local Levels : A Grid-Based Approach

This paper introduces a grid-based approach to reduce the time to deliver local meteorological forecast information. The computation of local meteorological forecasts relies on the execution of both regional and local scale Numerical Weather Prediction models. Typically, such models require extensive computation on large compute clusters. Moreover, the models are commonly executed sequentially, since local models rely on the output of a regional model. The approach introduced in this paper, modifies the computational dependencies in order to compute the models more in parallel while ensuring that computational results are appropriately synchronized. We evaluate the method in a high performance computing grid using the Brazilian Regional Atmospheric Modelling System (BRAMS). The experimental results show a reduction of up to 71 % in the time to deliver local meteorological information with this approach. The approach is sufficiently general that it can be useful with other large distributed applications.

Verificación de los pronosticos del modelo BRAMS centrado en la region subtropical de Sudamerica

El objetivo del presente trabajo es realizar una verificación de los pronósticos generados en el Departamento de Ciencias de la Atmósfera y los Océanos de la Universidad de Buenos Aires con el modelo Brazilian Regional Atmospheric Modeling System(BRAMS). Utilizando dicho modelo, desde 2006, se realizan dos pronósticos al día por un plazo de 72 horas en dos retículas anidadas con una resolución horizontal de 80 y 20km. La retícula de mayor resolución abarca Paraguay, Uruguay, Sur de Brasil y Bolivia y el centro y norte de Argentina y Chile. En este trabajo se realiza la verificación sobre el dominio de mayor resolución para el período desde abril de 2006 a diciembre de 2008. El interés se centra en verificar los pronósticos de precipitación, y de los perfiles verticales de temperatura, humedad y viento en las localidades donde se dispone de datos de radiosondeos. La verificación de los pronósticos de precipitación se realiza mediante estadísticos calculados frente a las observaciones convencionales disponibles y frente a estimaciones de precipitación CMORPH. Los resultados son similares a los obtenidos en la región con modelos de aproximadamente la misma resolución. Además se identifican las deficiencias principales de los pronósticos lo que permitirá realizar ajustes en la configuración del mismo para mejorar su desempeño.

Determinação e modelagem da taxa de consumo de biomassa queimada

O presente trabalho avalia o emprego da energia radiativa do fogo (ERF) para estimar as emissões de material particulado com diâmetro menor que 2,5µm (PM2,5µm), a partir da obtenção do coeficiente multiplicativo, que relaciona o consumo de biomassa com a ERF liberada. Para isto, foram utilizados dados provenientes dos produtos do MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) e do produto derivado do satélite GOES (Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite), para calcular o total de aerossóis emitidos para a atmosfera. O CCATT-BRAMS (Coupled Chemistry-Aerosol-Tracer Transport model coupled to Brazilian Regional Atmospheric Modelling System) foi utilizado para estimar a concentração de PM2,5µm provenientes da queima de biomassa. Estes dados foram comparados com os dados de campo obtidos nos experimentos do LBA (Large Scale Biosphere-Atmosphere) SMOCC (Smoke, Aerosols, Clouds, rainfall, and Climate) e RaCCI (Radiation, Cloud, and Climate Interactions). A estimativa da emissão de PM2,5µm (µg.m-3) apresentou uma correlação com os dados do SMOCC/RaCCI superiores a 92%. Ainda, constatou-se que o consumo máximo diário pode exceder 5 Tg (milhões de toneladas), com uma média diária de 2,1 Tg. O método resultante das análises de laboratório permitiu estimar a biomassa consumida em 0,28 ± 0,01 Pg (10(15) g) para a América do Sul, entre Julho e Novembro de 2002.

Avaliação dos prognósticos de precipitação simulada pelo modelo BRAMS na Amazônia Ocidental na estação chuvosa

O objetivo deste estudo é avaliar o modelo de previsão numérica do tempo BRAMS (Brazilian Regional Atmospheric Modelling System), a partir da comparação entre os valores preditos e os observados (dados do NCEP/NOAA (National Centers of Environmental Predictions/ National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) e do satélite TRMM (Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission)). O modelo foi assimilado com dados do modelo global do NCEP/NOAA e do CPTEC/INPE. Foram realizadas comparações entre os valores preditos e os observados através da raiz do erro quadrático médio (RMSE) e do erro médio (ME) para os prognósticos de precipitação para os horizontes de 24, 48, 72 e 96 horas, do período de novembro de 2008 a março de 2009. Os resultados mostraram que o modelo BRAMS teve uma performance melhor quando assimilado com dados do modelo global do NCEP/NOAA comparado com as saídas a partir das assimilações do modelo global do CPTEC/INPE.

Can the Deforestation Breeze Change the Rainfall in Amazonia? A Case Study for the BR-163 Highway Region

Abstract The authors simulated the effects of Amazonian mesoscale deforestation in the boundary layer and in rainfall with the Brazilian Regional Atmospheric Modeling System (BRAMS) model. They found that both the area and shape (with respect to wind incidence) of deforestation and the soil moisture status contributed to the state of the atmosphere during the time scale of several weeks, with distinguishable patterns of temperature, humidity, and rainfall. Deforestation resulted in the development of a three-dimensional thermal cell, the so-called deforestation breeze, slightly shifted downwind to large-scale circulation. The boundary layer was warmer and drier above 1000-m height and was slightly wetter up to 2000-m height. Soil wetness affected the circulation energetics proportionally to the soil dryness (for soil wetness below ∼0.6). The shape of the deforestation controlled the impact on rainfall. The horizontal strips lined up with the prevailing wind showed a dominant increase in rainfall, significant up to about 60 000 km2. On the other hand, in the patches aligned in the opposite direction (north–south), there was both increase and decrease in precipitation in two distinct regions, as a result of clearly separated upward and downward branches, which caused the precipitation to increase for patches up to 15 000 km2. The authors’ estimates for the size of deforestation impacting the rainfall contributed to fill up the low spatial resolution in other previous studies.