Big Bang Research Articles

Inverse Gertsenshtein effect as a probe of high-frequency gravitational waves

We apply the inverse Gertsenshtein effect, i.e., the graviton-photon conversion in the presence of a magnetic field, to constrain high-frequency gravitational waves (HFGWs).Using existing astrophysical measurements, we compute upper limits on the GW energy densities ΩGW at 16 different frequency bands.Given the observed magnetisation of galaxy clusters with field strength B ∼ μG correlated on 𝒪(10) kpc scales, we estimate HFGW constraints in the 𝒪(102) GHz regime to be ΩGW ≲ 1016 with the temperature measurements of the Atacama Cosmology Telescope (ACT).Similarly, we conservatively obtain ΩGW ≲ 1013 (1011) in the 𝒪(102) MHz (𝒪(10) GHz) regime by assuming uniform magnetic field with strength B ∼ 0.1 nG and saturating the excess signal over the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) reported by radio telescopes such as the Experiment to Detect the Global EoR Signature (EDGES), LOw Frequency ARray (LOFAR), and Murchison Widefield Array (MWA), and the balloon-borne second generation Absolute Radiometer for Cosmology, Astrophysics, and Diffuse Emission (ARCADE2)with graviton-induced photons. The upcoming Square Kilometer Array (SKA) can tighten these constraints by roughly 10 orders of magnitude, which will be a step closer to reaching the critical value of ΩGW = 1 or the Big Bang Nucleosynthesis (BBN) bound of ΩGW ≃ 1.2 × 10-6.We point to future improvement of the SKA forecast and estimate that proposed CMB measurement at the level of 𝒪(100-2) nK, such as Primordial Inflation Explorer (PIXIE) and Voyage 2050, are needed to viably detect stochastic backgrounds of HFGWs.

Space-time entropy, space of singularities and gravity origin: A case study

A new definition of entropy is introduced using a model that simulates an expanding space-time compatible with the fundamental principle of cosmology. The entropy is obtained by mean of a state function that measures the variation of the space-time normal curvature, from a highly compressed space to a lower compressed space. The defined entropy leads to work out a new understanding of the earliest conditions that last for a period estimated to 380,000 years after the Big Bang. It leads to understand via a short period of inflation the process that generates the uniform distribution of matter and energy at the surface of the last scattering. It involves gravitational singularities in a process of gradual decompression propitious to the incubation of matter recombination, and it allows to trace back gravity origin.

Infinite Universe, an Occurrence and a Development

In the present paper we establish, that (i) The universe is infinite, (ii) If in its own eternal existence the infinite universe obtains some state (some death), then it receives this state (this death) countless many times and the initial moments of these states (these deaths) are unbounded from below and from above in the time axis. Besides (iii) We do a review of some results, connected with the occurrence and the development of the universe.

Probing the Stellar Populations and Star Formation History of Early-type Galaxies at 0 < z < 1.1 in the Rest-frame Ultraviolet

We measure the evolution of the rest-frame near-ultraviolet (NUV)−V colors for early-type galaxies in clusters at 0 < z < 1.1 using data from the Hyper Suprime-Cam Subaru Strategic Program, CFHT Large Area U-band Deep Survey, and local Sloan Digital Sky Survey clusters observed with Galaxy Evolution Explorer. Our results show that there is an excess in the ultraviolet spectrum in most quiescent galaxies (compared to the expectations from models fitting their optical/infrared colors and spectra) below z ∼ 0.6, beyond which the excess UV emission fades rapidly. This evolution of the UV color is only consistent with the presence of a highly evolved, hot horizontal branch subpopulation in these galaxies (among the majority of cool and optically bright stars), comprising on average 10% of the total stellar mass and forming at z > 3. The blue UV colors of early-type galaxies at low–intermediate redshifts are likely driven by this subpopulation being enriched in helium up to ∼44%. At z > 0.8 (when the extra UV component has not yet appeared) the data allow us to constrain the star formation histories of galaxies by fitting models to the evolution of their UV colors: we find that the epoch at which the stellar populations formed lies in the range 3 < z form < 10 (corresponding to 0.5–2.2 Gyr after the Big Bang) with a star formation e-folding timescale of τ = 0.35–0.7 Gyr, suggesting that these galaxies formed the majority of stars at very high redshift, with a brief yet intense burst of star formation activity. The star formation history and chemical evolution of early-type galaxies resemble those of globular clusters, albeit on much larger scales.

The Shell of the Cosmos

The Big Bang theory, widely accepted by cosmologists, explains the origin, expansion, and eventual fate of the universe. It was further developed by inflation theory, which solves issues like the horizon and flatness problems. This theory states that the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB), a remnant of the Big Bang, permeates the entire universe. Cosmologists believe these photons were emitted during the recombination epoch, approximately 380,000 years after the Big Bang when the cosmos had a temperature of around 3,000 Kelvin. Additionally, the Lambda-Cold Dark Matter (ΛCDM) model addresses questions arising from observations of the cosmos, such as the existence of light elements like hydrogen, helium, lithium, and the anisotropy in the CMB, and eventually, the continuous expansion of space. In this model, dark energy, represented as the cosmological constant lambda (Λ), exerts negative pressure on empty space, counteracting the effects of gravity with a repulsive force. While the Standard Model of Particle Physics (SMPP) posits that the universe's matter originated from fundamental particles (quarks and leptons), it cannot explain the origin of these particles and how they came into existence, because general relativity and the SMPP cannot be integrated to explain matter production at the singularity point. T-Consciousness Cosmology introduces the ‘Spherical Cosmos Model’ (SCM) to answer questions about the cause of the explosion, expansion, and shape of the universe, the nature of ordinary matter and energy, dark matter and energy, the fate of the universe, the reason for the high density of objects in the depths of space, etc. In this model, the spherical cosmos has a shell called the ‘Shell of the Cosmos,’ made of Taheri Absolute Matter (TAM) that not only isolates it but also produces dark matter and dark energy, ordinary matter and ordinary energy, and finally space mesh from the inner surface to the inside of the cosmos since the birth of the universe. The Shell of this isolated sphere is currently expanding at a speed faster than the speed of light. In this perspective, dark matter and energy are the same space mesh that have been compressed to varying degrees. Dark energy, which is constantly being released from the Shell into the cosmos, unlike the standard model of cosmology, is one of the factors in the expansion of the isolated cosmos by creating positive pressure in it. Also in this model, the recombination epoch will always be located spherically at a certain distance from the Shell until the ultimate stage of Rebound. In other words, not only is the origin of the CMB not related to the past of the cosmos, but it also exists now, and given the vastness of the sphere and the position of the Earth within this sphere, we detect it in the microwave wavelength with a delay of several billion years. Therefore, the observed distant galaxies that have been attributed to the early epochs of the cosmos in the Big Bang model are currently being created by the Shell according to the Spherical Cosmos Model, and we are surrounded by particles and objects that are constantly being produced.

The Cosmic Black Hole

Concurrent with advancements in cosmology, various theories have been proposed about the origin of the universe or its ultimate fate. These theories include the Steady State Theory, Oscillating Universe Theory or Cyclic model, Multiverse Theory, String Theory/M-Theory, Quantum Gravity or Loop Quantum Cosmology, The Big Bang Theory, Inflationary Universe Theory, and the No-Boundary Proposal. Among these, the Big Bang theory has been widely accepted by most scientists, with the Inflation theory serving as its complementary addition. On the other hand, theories such as the big rip, flat universe, and big crunch have also addressed the ultimate fate of the cosmos. However, T-Consciousness Cosmology presents a new hypothesis to explain how the universe was born from a black hole named the ‘Cosmic Black Hole,’ or the initial seed of the universe. This hypothesis not only addresses how this particular type of black hole forms, contingent on the reversion of the cosmos according to the Spherical Cosmos model but also details its fundamental differences from known black holes, referred to as “intra-cosmic black holes.” The reversion of the cosmos in the ‘Spherical Cosmos Model,’ is described through a mechanism known as space Rebound, which is distinct from the Big Crunch. The Terminal Edge of the cosmos is defined as the maximum radius at which space mesh is capable of rebound during the universe's volume increase. In the process of the rebound of space to its ultimate extent, objects within the cosmos face complete disintegration and transform into waves called absolute waves. Due to the inherent rotation of the cosmos and its reversion from the Terminal Edge, these waves collide and create gravitational centers in the central regions of the spherical cosmos, forming new types of matter known as light-dark matter, dark-dark matter, and thermal matter. Each of these mentioned materials represents a new type of matter introduced by T-Consciousness Cosmology. Additionally, according to this model, the cosmos contracts into a very tiny point with a final quench, where all types of matter and fundamental forces unite, forming a new type of absolute matter called ‘Taheri Absolute Matter’ (TAM). The spherical cosmos model also divides time into various types: ‘Longitudinal’ and ‘Transverse,’ and unlike the theory of relativity, where time is considered a dimension, it classifies it as one of the types of transverse time introduced as an entropic force. In essence, this type of force (time) acts against the force of gravity and, by disintegrating all types of objects from fundamental to large scale, acts as an agent of stress or tension release from the space mesh.

Inverse Cosmos

The Big Bang Model is the most widely accepted cosmological model regarding the origin of the universe, resting on two fundamental assumptions: one is Einstein's theory of general relativity, describing the gravitational interaction of matter with space-time, and the other is the cosmological principle, stating that an observer viewing the universe will be faced with homogeneity and isotropy, meaning that the universe has no edge. According to this model, one cannot seek a specific point of origin of the big bang, as this explosion occurred simultaneously throughout the whole universe. Through the evolution of various cosmological models, the Standard Cosmological Model (Lambda-CDM) also assumes that the universe consists of three main components: 1. A cosmological constant associated with dark energy, 2. Cold dark matter, and 3. Ordinary matter. From the perspective of cosmologists, this model provides a general explanation for a wide range of observed phenomena, including the abundance of light elements, cosmic microwave background radiation, and large-scale structures in the universe. However, there still exist aspects of the observed universe that currently pose challenges not explained by the big bang model. In response to these challenges, "T-Consciousness Cosmology" proposes multiple hypotheses, offering not only a new interpretative angle on the behavior and function of the components of the cosmos, but also stating that the latest cosmological models have paradoxes relative to the observations made. T-Consciousness Cosmology asserts that if we accept the prevalent models of cosmology, we are then faced with illogical manifestations of an expanding universe. In this discussion, several reasons are presented under the concept of an "Inverse Cosmos," challenging certain interpretations of the standard cosmological model or the latest big bang model regarding the origin of the cosmos, its geometric shape, and the stages accepted by most cosmologists for cosmic expansion. These challenges include issues such as the Density Obscurity Horizon for Matter and Energy, the Thermal Obscurity Horizon, the Timelessness Horizon, and others.

The Observer and the General Centrality of Particles

According to the latest cosmological theories, the universe that began expanding with the Big Bang is a homogeneous and isotropic universe whose expansion continues to this day. According to cosmologists, based on this principle, the universe does not have a specific spatial center, and the special geometry considered for this viewpoint necessitates that any point in space can be considered the center of the universe. On the other hand, cosmologists consider the Big Bang as a point on a timeline, not a spatial occurrence. They state that our current best understanding of the origin and evolution of the universe is in line with the Standard Model of Cosmology (SMC), also known as the Lambda-Cold Dark Matter (ΛCDM) model. This model is based on two main theories of physics: General Relativity (GR) and the Standard Model of Particle Physics (SMPP). General Relativity is used to understand how the expansion of the universe is affected by the matter and energy within it, with gravity being the curvature of spacetime caused by the presence of mass and energy. Also, in this theory, a dimensionless quantity can be used to compare the time experienced by different observers in a gravitational field. This dimensionless quantity is often shown as the time dilation factor (Lorentz factor with the symbol γ, gamma). Alongside this theory, the Standard Model of Particle Physics describes the fundamental particles constituting matter and the three forces: electromagnetic, strong nuclear, and weak nuclear, governing the interactions of these particles. In this model, physicists often express time inversely as energy with the unit of giga-electron volts (GeV) and use it as a framework to understand the behavior of various particles in the early universe. Parallel to these theories, T-Consciousness Cosmology introduces the Spherical Cosmos Model (SCM). This model challenges the spatial centrality found in the standard cosmological model, which is based on the principle of isotropy. By doing so, SCM assigns a special place to the Milky Way galaxy, and consequently, to Earth, which is supported by results obtained from measurements and observations made from the depths of the cosmos. In this viewpoint, time is divided into Longitudinal Time and Transverse Time. The type of time defined in the theory of relativity as a four-dimensional intertwined spacetime is introduced here as an Entropic Time Force, which is a subcategory of Transverse Time. This challenges the definitions provided in SMPP or GR, raising questions about whether time should be considered a dimension or a quantity. T-Consciousness Cosmology states that the cosmos and every one of its components are subject to the Taheri Uncertainty Principle, and further considers them as virtual, by virtue of how they are defined by this principle. This principle can be examined from various angles, and in this discussion, it is approached from the perspective of time. On the other hand, the Taheri Uncertainty Principle segues to theories such as the Temporal Centrality of Particles, Time Continuity, and Time Uncertainty based on the special vantage point of the human observer, highlighting the fundamental role of humans in giving meaning to these concepts.

The dynamics of matter bounce cosmology in Weyl-type [formula omitted] gravity

In this work, we investigate the dynamics of bouncing cosmologies within the framework of Weyl-type f(Q,T) gravity. Here, Q represents the non-metricity of the space–time, is determined by the vector field wμ, while T represents the trace of the matter energy–momentum tensor. Our objective is to explore the feasibility of avoiding the Big Bang singularity by implementing a matter-bounce cosmology. To achieve this, we consider a specific model with the functional form f(Q,T)=αQ+β6κ2T, where α and β are model parameters. We analyze the dynamical parameters associated with this model and examine the influence of the Weyl-type f(Q,T) theory on these parameters. Moreover, we assess the stability of the proposed model to ensure its viability as a cosmological scenario. Through our analysis, we aim to gain insights into the potential implications and consequences of Weyl-type f(Q,T) gravity for bouncing scenarios, contributing to our understanding of alternative gravitational theories in the context of cosmology.

Revolutionizing cosmology: the small bang model and its implications on universe genesis

The Small Bang Model (SBM) introduces a revolutionary framework for the genesis of the universe, challenging conventional cosmological theories. By sug-gesting the universe originated from a zero-mass state, facilitated by antimatter black holes, the SBM provides fresh insights into galaxy formation and the dis-tribution of matter and antimatter. This paper outlines the SBM’s foundational principles, contrasts it with the Big Bang theory, and highlights its potential to resolve longstanding cosmological puzzles. Notably, it presents empirical valida-tions demonstrating distinct mass relationships between supermassive black holes and their host galaxies, supporting a novel classification into matter and anti-matter galaxies. The Small Bang model is founded on two pivotal concepts: the theory of Cosmic Inflation and the principle of ’Shunyata Universe’s Genesis’ (or’Emptiness Universe’s Genesis’), a framework envisioning the universe’s incep-tion as small, empty, and cold, entirely devoid of matter or energy. Within this Shunyata beginning, the cosmos as we witness today, abundant in matter and energy, was forged during the 2µs duration of cosmic inflation. Throughout this period, the substantial energy of the Inflaton field was harnessed either through the mediation of micro black holes or directly by the Inflaton’s influence on the spacetime fabric itself. This era was marked by the continuous creation of matter and antimatter particle pairs (such as proton-antiproton and electron-positron, including the creation of photon-antiphoton pairs), permeating the entire expand-ing universe. The SBM predicts that the massive annihilation of antiparticles, induced by the inflaton field throughout the entire universe in the final 15 ns of cosmic inflation, generated two tomographic scans: Cosmic Antiproton Tomogra-phy (CAT) radiation and Cosmic Positron Tomography (CPT) radiation. These two tomographies serve as evidence of the inflaton field’s existence, allowing us to calculate its principal parameters and also to create images of the interiors of hydrogen clouds that formed the first galaxies at the end of cosmic inflation. This phenomenon has not yet been fully understood by physicists because the photons from CAT radiation have shifted into the microwave range, generating the Cos-mic Microwave Background (CMB), and the CPT radiation has transitioned into the FM range, producing the Cosmic FM Background (CFMB), which is 1013 times weaker than the CMB. This weaker signal can be confused with noise gen-erated by FM equipment, thus remaining undetected. These SBM findings offer a groundbreaking perspective on the early universe’s dynamics and the distribu-tion of cosmic matter, and dark matter origin, deepening our understanding of cosmic inflation. Consequently, we invite physicists to study, comprehend, and assess the new cosmological Shunyata beginning, proposed by the Small Bang Model.

Quadratic energy–momentum squared gravity: Constraints from big bang nucleosynthesis

In this work, we extend the standard cosmological model within the quadratic energy–momentum squared gravity (qEMSG) framework, introducing a nonminimal interaction between the usual material field (Tμν) and its accompanying partner field (qEMSF, TμνqEMSF), defined by f(T2)=αT2 with T2=TμνTμν. Adopting an analytical approach within the qEMSG framework, we present a comprehensive exploration of Big Bang Nucleosynthesis (BBN) dynamics. Our analysis selects the radiation-dominated universe solution compatible with the standard cosmological model limit as α→0 and reveals that qEMSF interaction model can modify the radiation energy density’s evolution, potentially altering neutron–proton interconversion rates and consequently affecting 4He abundance in various ways. By explicitly defining modifications to the predicted primordial 4He mass fraction, Yp, we establish the most stringent cosmological constraints on the parameter α based on recent measurements of Yp: (−8.81≤α≤8.14)×10−27eV−4 (68% CL) from Aver et al.’s primordial 4He abundance measurements, aligning with α=0. Additionally, (3.48≤α≤4.43)×10−27eV−4 (68% CL) from Fields et al.’s estimates, utilizing the Planck-CMB estimated baryon density within the standard cosmological model framework, diverges from α=0, thereby lending support to the qEMSF interaction model. The study also highlights the bidirectional nature of energy–momentum/entropy transfer in qEMSF interaction model, depending on the sign of α. The implications of qEMSF in the presence of additional relativistic relics are also explored, showcasing the model’s potential to accommodate deviations from standard cosmology and the Standard Model of particle physics.

Translation of Humor and Culture: Examples from The Big Bang Theory

Translation of humor and cultural references are the main challenges that linguists focused on audiovisual translation must overcome. The objective is to translate the source material into something that the audience will understand. Not all comical situations and expressions or cultural allusions are translatable literally or have an equivalent in the target language. To maintain the same level of impact and comic relief, these professionals make important decisions that range from omission to a complete transformation of each joke and reference. This paper contains an analysis of the translations into Spanish of four heavily charged instances of comedy and cultural references of the television series The Big Bang Theory.

Study on electromagnetic response in cavity to relic high-frequency gravitational waves with nontensorial polarizations

The relic gravitational waves (RGWs) originating from the early stages of the universe represent one of the most significant and highly focused targets for future gravitational wave (GW) detections, due to that these waves contain crucial information about the evolution of the cosmos and serve as key evidence for various cosmological models such as the big bang. RGWs cover exceptionally broad frequency bands encompassing the gigahertz (GHz) range (109 Hz), and the schemes based on electromagnetic (EM) response to GWs have been long and widely studied for such GHz band. Differently to previous works, we work out analytical and numerical forms of EM signals (with acquired novel characteristics and distinctive behaviors) caused by relic high-frequency GWs (RHFGWs) in simulated resonant cavity. By joint application of constructed effective and targeted deep learning neural networks, we successfully identify these EM signals amidst noise, and for the first time distinguish the different oscillating factors in focused model of RGW; also, we estimate typical parameters of corresponding RHFGWs and associated cosmological models, and establish a new scheme to explore the possible extra polarizations of RHFGWs in resonant cavity. In brief, we obtain new connections between the distinctive features of caused EM signals in cavity and corresponding parameters of cosmological models and RGWs; the results and methods would not only contribute to current theoretical investigation but also could provide valuable insights and preparation for potential experiments aimed at detecting such RHFGWs in the future, or may placing constraints on relevant GW parameters and theories of gravity.

Complexity growth patterns in the Big History: Preliminary results of a quantitative analysis

The paper presents preliminary results of a quantitative analysis of two patterns of complexity growth in the Big History – decelerating universal (cosmic) evolutionary development evidenced in the Universe for a few billions of years after the Big Bang (around 13.8 billion BP) and accelerating global (biosocial) evolutionary development observed for about 4 billion years on the planet Earth since the emergence of life on it and until the early 1970s. It is shown that the first pattern can be described with an astonishing accuracy (R2 = 0.999996) by the following equation: y = C1/(t-t1*), where y is the rate of the universal complexity growth (measured as a number of phase transitions [accompanied by the growth of complexity] per a unit of time), C1 is a constant, and t-t1* is the time since the Big Bang Singularity (t1*~13.8 billion years BP). In the meantime, it was earlier shown that the second pattern could be described with an almost as high accuracy (R2 = 0.9989 to 0.9991) by the following equation: y = C2/(t2*-t), where y is the rate of accelerating global (biosocial) evolutionary development, C2 is another constant, and t2*-t is the time till the 21st century Singularity (t2*, estimated to be around 2027, or 2029 CE). Thus, the post-Big-Bang hyperbolic decrease of universal complexity growth rate and the hyperbolic increase of the growth rate of global complexity in the last 4 billion years proceeded following the same law. We are dealing here with a perfect symmetry: (1) the rate of the universal (cosmic) complexity growth decreases when we move from the Big Bang Singularity, whereas the rate of the global complexity growth increase when we approach the 21st century Singularity; (2) more specifically, as the time since the Big Bang Singularity increases n times, the universal (cosmic) complexity growth rate decreases the same n times, whereas when the time till the 21st century Singularity decreased n times, the global complexity growth rate increased the same n times. A somehow more complex symmetry is observed as regards the interaction between energy dynamics and complexity growth within both processes. The implications of the symmetry of both patterns are discussed.

Complexity: A Rationale for the University

Complexity provides a unifying theme that responds to fundamental questions about the emergent structure of the universe as well as human nature. It offers an intellectual framework for disciplines throughout universities. It structures a universe of knowledge across natural sciences, social sciences, and the humanities – from quarks to global societies and human fascination with inter-galactic relations. Ideas of complexity begin with its unidirectional emergence from the big bang to us now. The idea is developed by its multidirectional emergence that includes narratives from the big bang to planets, galaxies, and life forms other than our own. Furthermore, complexity often entails stasis, with levels of complexity remaining as they are, reversing to simpler levels, or all or parts of nature ending altogether. Speculations about multiple universes lead to an idea of infinite complexity.

Arno Allan Penzias (1933-2024).

Radio astronomer who discovered the Big Bang's echo.

Reevaluating Cosmic Origins: A Critical Analysis of Relic Radiation and Cosmometric Assumptions in Big Bang Cosmology

This article presents a critical examination of two key aspects of Big Bang cosmology: the nature and observability of cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation and geometric inconsistencies or “cosmometric contradictions” within established approaches to cosmology. By dissecting the conventional interpretation of the CMB as relic radiation from a primordial fireball, we uncover that the standard model’s reliance on a spatially homogeneous fluid to represent radiation and matter underestimates the propagation of radiation and leads to the conclusion that the observability of the CMB contradicts its purported origins. Treating free radiation as if it expanded with the universe while disregarding that it escapes from its source at the speed of light is termed here as the “relic radiation blunder”. Furthermore, we delve into the cosmometric contradiction, highlighting how the calculated distances in standard cosmology imply a universe that exceeds the spatial limitations of its own foundational premise. This makes it evident that standard cosmology is not a unitary theory but involves models with conflicting spatial extensions. The analysis suggests a need for a revised understanding of redshift phenomena and cosmic expansion. It advocates for a reassessment of the underpinnings of cosmology, urging the scientific community to consider alternative frameworks that reconcile these critical inconsistencies. This work challenges the inviolable core of established cosmological theory, calling for a paradigm shift to foster foundational advances in our understanding of the universe.

Some Old Globular Clusters (and Stars) Inferring That the Universe Is Older Than Commonly Accepted

The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) has made startling discoveries regarding the early universe. It has revealed galaxies as soon as 300 million years after the Big Bang, challenging current galaxy formation models. Additionally, it has identified massive, bright galaxies in the young universe, contradicting the standard ΛCDM model&amp;apos;s age estimate of 13.8 Gyr. This prompts a re-evaluation of galaxy formation and cosmological models. There is a strong tension between JWST high-redshift galaxy observations and Planck Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) satellite measurements. Even alternative cosmological models, including those incorporating dark matter–baryon interaction, f(R) gravity, and dynamical dark have failed to resolve this tension. One possible solution is that the Universe&amp;apos;s age exceeds predictions by the ΛCDM model. The study challenges this by introducing a method based on blue straggler stars (BSs) within GCs, comparing ages with other models. The ages obtained are compared with those of other models to certify that they are equally valid. These values are comparable within the error ranges except for the clusters: NGC104, NGC 5634, IC 4499, NGC 6273 and NGC 4833, finding their respective ages to be between 14.7 and 21.6 Gyr, surpassing the commonly accepted age of the Universe. These results inferred an age for the Universe of around 26 Gyr, close to 26.7 Gyr. This value aligns that suggested by the cosmological model named Covarying Coupling Constants + TL (CCC+TL). Such a value is consistent with early universe observations from the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST). The results of the present paper reinforces the advocating for a critical review of models encompassing dark mass, dark energy, and the dynamics of the Universe, particularly in explaining the presence of primitive massive galaxies, very old GCs, and very old and poor metallic stars.

Three Lessons From the 2004 “Big Bang” Enlargement

The 2004 “Big Bang” enlargement was a powerful reminder that European integration is an instrument for peace and not just prosperity. The pace of that enlargement depended more on the requirements for stability than on the transformation of the candidate countries. It was also a reminder of the importance of forward-looking analysis. Candidates might meet the criteria for membership at the time of accession, but that is no guarantee that they will develop in ways that continue to reflect those criteria once they have gained entry. Finally, it was a reminder that enlargement changes the experience of membership for all member states and not just for those countries that gain entry. A larger Union requires greater self-discipline to hold down congestion in decision-making and greater multilateral surveillance to prevent the actions of one member state from undermining the benefits of membership for the rest. These reminders are important lessons in planning the European Union’s next historic enlargement. The next enlargement will follow a pace set by security considerations more than the transformative power of the accession process. It will depend on a robust analysis of convergence together with contingency planning for any staged accession. And it will require commitment from existing member states as well as candidate countries to what will become a very different European Union. This next enlargement will be challenging for all parts of Europe. Nevertheless, it is better than the alternative of no enlargement or an accession process with no credible endgame.

Stock market development: building a risk society since 1688

ABSTRACT Created by speculators in Amsterdam in 1602, and unstable ever since, stock markets have become central to economies globally, despite being recognised as a significant contributor to today’s risk society. History exposes questionable reasons for the stock market’s rise and reveals reversion to a more productive economic framework to be a way of reducing societal risk. The stock market’s spontaneous development by opportunists in London following the 1688 ‘Glorious Revolution’ spread a non-essential, localised, and speculative market to the international political economy. This precipitated London’s first Big Bang: the privatisation of the Bank of England and stock market deregulation, followed by the South Sea Bubble within thirty years. Economists subsequently embedded the market in economic theory. Keynes’ re-definition of ‘investment’ to include share trading began an ontological drift that made stock markets a hallmark of capitalism. Unlike Knight, Keynes’ concern was share-trading risk, and the uncertainty of the unknown future remains an unresolved challenge for risk analysts, speculators, and regulators, their conflicting goals militating against regulation and stability. Re-building the successful capitalist framework that was abandoned as share markets attracted unjustifiable support, remains a viable alternative to continuing centuries of efforts to manage share-trading risks and the uncertainty of an unknowable future.