Baden School Research Articles

Аксиология М. Вебера в современной перспективе

The article is devoted to the value problems in the sociology of M. Weber. It shows the interrelation of Weber’s sociological methodology and theory of social action with the neo-Kantianism of the Baden school. The differ-ences between G. Rickert’s axiology and M. Weber’s approach are revealed. Thus, the article interprets the specificity of M. Weber’s attitude to the consideration of value issues in social sciences both at the time of choosing the subject of research and as part of the scientific research itself. The role of value pluralism in M. Weber’s social theory is demonstrated, the problem of the influence of religious values on economic ethics is touched upon. Antinomies of “ethics of persuasion and ethics of responsibility” in M. Weber’s political works are outlined, their influence on various value systems is shown. The influence of M. Weber’s thought on modern theories of values is characterized. New approaches to the analysis of this topic based on the material of mod-ern sociology and psychology of values are outlined.

Methodology from the Standpoint of Experience: A Comparison of Max Weber, Heinrich Rickert and John Stuart Mill

Abstract: This paper interprets Weber's Rickertian theory of science as methodology articulated from the standpoint of experience. It thereby questions the view that Weber's methodology reflects a sympathy with neo-Kantian transcendental idealism. The first section explains the Baden School's distinction between transcendental argument and the explanation of events. The second traces Rickert's articulation of this distinction as a demarcation between epistemology and methodology. The third section examines Rickert's claim that his methodology is compatible with a consistent empiricism. The fourth section interprets differences between Rickert's and Weber's methodologies as indications of Weber's commitment to the standpoint of experience. Addressing three misconceptions of empiricism prevalent in Weber scholarship, the final section briefly compares Rickert's and Weber's methodologies with that of John Stuart Mill. Given that Rickert's influence on Weber is well documented we focus mainly on Rickert's methodology. Weber's arguments are considered in depth only where they significantly differ from Rickert's.

Medieval Russian Journeys and Modern Russian Travelogues: Temporal Corrections of Representative Practices

La Topographie légendaire des Évangiles en Terre Sainte by M. Halbwachs was one of the first studies which employed the strategy of comparing “travelographic” descriptions tracing the dependence of descriptions of the physical world on predetermined settings. The author concludes that the geographical space of the “Promised Land” is realised through “legendary” images. The localisation of specific events occurs following the collective ideas of communities that transform physical reality based on models accepted within the communities. Thus, when we identify descriptive models, it is necessary to consider the constructive nature of spatial representations and correlate various rhetorical strategies used by the authors of travelographic descriptions. The article considers the possibility of using the comparative method when comparing the descriptive strategies of the authors of Russian Modern period travelogues. The author considers the role of images of the past in the descriptive strategies of eighteenth-century travellers. Referring to extensive material, the article traces the evolution of elements of space recorded by various authors, from itineraria (Ignatius Smolnyanin, Afanasy Nikitina, Trifon Korobeinikov, etc.) to fiction travelogues (A. F. Veltman, O. I. Senkovsky, V. A. Sologub, etc.). The author concludes that texts from the late eighteenth – first half of the nineteenth centuries reflect the loss of Christian values and the “crisis of objectivity”. One of the consequences was the crisis of travelographic descriptions and the fragmentation of images of reality, which is stated by members of the Baden school of Neo-Kantianism, who use the concept of “values” to create new research guidelines.

Mała ojczyzna i duża książka

This text is an introduction to the philosophy of Heinrich Rickert. The introduction has three levels: biographical, bibliographical, and doxographic. The doxography involves examining Rickert’s views in the context of the achievements of Neo-Kantianism, the Baden school and contemporary philosophy. Noras discusses the main issues Rickert treated in his philosophy, which was occupied with the theory of cognition, the methodology of the humanities and natural sciences and the philosophy of the history of philosophy.

The content of the concept of «spiritual and moral values» in the humanitarian knowledge of Germany

Introduction. Spiritual and moral values play an essential role in the formation of the younger person's personality. Therefore, their scientific development occupies an important place in the theory of pedagogy and implies the need for special research in the field of philosophy, axiology and a number of other sciences. The purpose of the article is to generalize the views of leading German scientists of the XIX-XX centuries who dealt with the problem of axiology, including in relation to pedagogy. Materials and methods. The leading research methods are the analysis of scientific literature, mainly in German, comparative and historical methods, and the axiological approach, which allowed us to identify valuable content in the theoretical works of German authors. Results. German axiology occupies a special place in the development of the doctrine of social and pedagogical values. It was German scientists who first developed the main approaches to the doctrine of values, which were then developed by axiologists of a number of other countries. The views of the leading philosophers-axiologists of Germany of the XIX-XX centuries are presented. Immanuel Kant was the first to turn to the study of the concept of "value". Rudolf-Hermann Lotze introduced the concept of "value" into science as an aesthetic and ethical category. The founders of the Baden School of Philosophy Wilhelm Windelband and Heinrich Rickert gave the first scientifically grounded interpretation of such cardinal concepts of axiology as evaluation, value, classification and hierarchy of values. Engelbert Gutwanger singled out such a feature in the concept of value as its orientation for the good or, conversely, against man and society. Fritz-Joachim von Rintelen divided values into personal and non-personal, and the personal sphere, in his opinion, rose above the non-personal; in other words, the interests of the individual were higher than the interests of society. Theodor Steinbuchel believed that moral values obliged and bound a person, and were perceived by him as a duty to society. The doctrine of values was further developed in the pedagogy of culture, represented by the names of Edward Spranger, Theodor Litt and Georg Michael Kershensteiner, who considered values in inseparable connection with education and culture. Conclusions. The scientific novelty of the study consists in a meaningful analysis of the views of a number of German scientists and philosophers. Currently, these views are actively used by the Russian theory of pedagogy as one of the methodological foundations. We put the following meaning into the concept of spiritual and moral values: these are socially approved and transmitted from generation to generation samples of culture and moral norms, personally significant, and regulating the behavior of a person, imprinted in the moral appearance of a person, in cultural patterns of life and intergenerational interaction, in educational relations, in pedagogical theories and methods of pedagogical activity and behavior. The main conclusion is that in order for the value orientations to be viable, and to be accepted by educators and students, it′s necessary that they correspond to the current life values of the younger generation and the progressive development of society as a whole.

Max Weber and Modernity: modernization, rationalization, legitimation

The paper reveals the features of sociological theorizing offered by classical sociology, including M. Weber's concept. The thematic directions that became central to the German scholar's sociology are identified: modernization, rationalization, legitimization, etc.; their genesis is analyzed from the point of view of the philosophical (Baden School of Neo-Kantianism) and sociological (G. Simmel's concept of cultural forms) studios. It is emphasized that rationalization, which was first considered by M. Weber, becomes a cross-cutting theme in sociology up to the end of the twentieth century. Further development of the concept of rationalization takes place within the communicative turn, associated with the name of J. Habermas. The concept of constructing the social, taking into account the meaning that the author puts into his actions, becomes the first attempt of theoretical synthesis in the process of overcoming the methodological crisis in sociological science. M. Weber's sociology offers a departure from the "container approach" in the analysis of society, which was later realized within the world-systemic (A. G. Frank, I. Wallerstein, J. Arrighi, etc.) and synthetic (M. Archer, P. Bourdieu, E. Giddens, P. Sztompka, etc.) concepts. The problematic of a bureaucratization, formulated by M. Weber in the early twentieth century to describe the processes of formation of the modern state, acquires new relevance today in connection with the expansion of the "bureaucratic spirit" to commercial enterprises, built according to the network logic. The tendencies of (self-)management on the part of employees, which are accelerating due to the transition to the remote form of work. The author shows how processes of legitimation, which are necessary for the perception of changes in professional activity, simultaneously contribute to the fragmentation and disintegration of local social spaces.

Cultural memory and paradigms in the study of the past: philosophy, history, cultural studies

The study deals with the fundamental differences in understanding the past in the philosophy of history, in classical historical science, as well as in memory studies. The authors represent the features of the formation of a non-classical methodological paradigm in the interpretation of history by A. Warburg, in the German “historical school”, in the neo-Kantians of the Baden school and in the Annals school. The non-classical methodology in the study of the past is presented in the reversion from conscious personal choice to the mechanisms of the unconscious rallying of the collective in the concepts of cultural memory by M. Halbwachs and J. Assmann. The peculiarity of “mentality”, “identity” and “cultural memory” as concepts of modern non-classical discourse is revealed. It is concluded that the construction of mythological images of the past is a novation of the era of “managed democracy”, which carries elements of authoritarianism. The past, as demonstrated by memory studies, has once again become a myth that the media make good use of.

Lebensführung: Eine systematische Skizze im Anschluss an Max Webers Forschungsprogramm

The article focuses on one of Max Weber‘s central concepts known in German as Lebensfuhrung(i.e., life conduct, though often mistakenly translated as life style in English). The author of this article begins with a rather paradoxical statement that this key concept remained without either a strict definition or a detailed elaboration in Weber’s sociology. He demonstrates the importance of lifefor Weber’s scientific research program, putting it into the complex context of the intellectual history at the turn of the century where the German Neo-Kantianism of the Baden School, philosophical anthropology, and the philosophy of life played significant roles. He continues with the reconstruction of the functional place of Lebensfuhrungamong the analytical tools Max Weber applied in his studies of Western rationalization, understood as a process of the total disenchantment of the world. Muller distinguishes between three main aspects of the rationalization of life in the situation of Modernity: the scientific-technological, the metaphysically-ethical, and the practical forms of modern rationality. He points to the poly-semantical meaning of Lebensfuhrung, while, at the same time, noticing that there is no special attention paid to the concept in current studies of the forms and styles of life. After a concise analysis of similar problems, he in turn formulates ten different forms of Lebensfuhrung in the globalized world, proper to the people in Western countries. These forms are related to trans-nationality, laborization, flexibilization, project-based activity, acceleration, instability, creativity, social control, digitalization, and reflexivity. In conclusion, from his analysis, he draws far-reaching consequences regarding the heuristic capacity and operationalization opportunities of Max Weber’s concepts.

The Ontological and Aesthetic Overcoming of the Philosophy of Wilhelm Windelband in the Silver Age

In Russia, the Neo-Kantianism of the Baden school was extensively studied and exceedingly influential, in terms of both its strengths (e.g., its justification for a unity of worldview) and its weaknesses (e.g., its relativistic model of truth and its rejection of ontology). The present article outlines the two ways of overcoming W. Windelband’s philosophy. The first is an ontological overcoming via the idea of all-​​unity and sophiology, which replaces Windelband’s concept of a folk soul. The second is an aesthetic overcoming via the recreation of reality in creativity, the work of free theurgy. The two approaches are shown to produce an unresolved conflict between the sophianity of the being and the recreation of the latter.

Plaatsbepaling in de tijd

Abstract Temporal orientation. Philosophy of history in the Netherlands, 1860-1940David Carr recently argued that philosophy of history in the Hegelian tradition was practical in the Kantian sense of that word: it provided temporal, moral, and political orientation by locating present-day experience on a large-scale historical canvas. This article extends Carr’s claim by arguing that much the same was true for positivist philosophy of history as practised by Henry Thomas Buckle and Herbert Spencer, for neo-Kantian philosophy of history in the Baden School, and for early twentieth-century debates over Oswald Spengler’s The decline of the West (1918-20) and Ernst Troeltsch’s Historicism and its problems (1922). Through the prism of the Dutch reception of these philosophies of history, which includes, of course, Dutch contributions to the genre, this article shows that philosophy of history in the decades between 1860 and 1940 was primarily valued for its practical dimension. Even such apparently technical issues as the nature of value-relevance in Heinrich Rickert’s understanding of historical interpretation almost invariably served as arguments in debates charged with moral, political, and/or religious implications.

Dwa projekty antynaturalizmu metodologicznego na przykładzie filozofii Heinricha Rickerta i Ernsta Cassirera

Two philosophers of turn of the century, Heinrich Rickert (1863–1936) and Ernst Cassirer (1874–1945) belong to large and not identical in meaning in their own views, the Neo-Kantianism movement. Though the Immanuel Kant’s philosophy to the state for both the irrefutable base – the foundation of considerations, among the theory of author of three Critiques and neo-Kantianism comes to light the difference of the range as far as Kant’s transcendentalism has the general character, insomuch aground Southwestern neo-Kantianism whose a representative is Rickert, takes place his particularization. There placing the problem of a priori conditions of possibility of the recognition, Rickert undertakes an attempt of the transcendental basis of the culture. Seeking bases of the recognition and the culture whatever, accepts Windelband’s partition of know- ledge on generalizing nomothetic’s disciplines (the sciences) and individualizing idiographic’s disciplines (the humanities) and calls the history a condition of the possibility of the experience. As the representative of the methodological dualism this thinker makes the philosophy, with the critical theory of cultural values. To include into the range of methodological decisions of the axiological problem among which to the foreground advances the problem granting the life the sense of the value and this, what necessarily important, Rickert not only additionally qualifies across this the proper object of the recognition, but also the theoretical thinking implants in the duty, instead the recognition establishes in the pure logic of being obligatory (Geltung).The problem of logical bases of disciplines about the spirit, examined from the perspective of the critical philosophy of the culture, investigates also the schoolboy of the Marburg neo-Kantianism, Ernst Cassirer. Its own interests with sciences, especially with the mathematical physics, he enriches with the widely understood idea of the culture founding, that sciences about the nature and the humanities as decisive about the all activity of the man, are not to themselves opposed, but mutually are complementary to one another. Binding measurable-quantitative and volitional and emotional – the qualitative moment of the act of the recognition, Cassirer throws up proposed by Baden school (Windelband, Rickert) of the theory of the value and the partition disciplines of knowledge. Perceiving the human variability, one assembles on historic and humanistic description of various forms of the human life.Showing the primary relationship of the Cassirer’s and Rickert’s thought with theoretical either with the practical Kant’s knowledge, in the pronouncement I return the special attention on the course of the line of demarcation dividing the sphere Geisteswissenschaften from the area Naturwissenschaften in proposed by neo-Kantian programs of the philosophy. Using the method of the comparative analysis, I characterize the manner of the seizure of the sciences and humanities – knowledge about the culture in Rickert’s philosophy expresses himself in the difference: nasci – colere, instead inwards Cassirera accepts the form of the disjunction: fact of the science – fact of the culture; difference which comes to light among this, what quantitative and to these, what qualitative.

<i>Koers</i> and the ideal of Christian scholarship

Commemorating the 75-year existence of the journal Koers is connected to the Reformational tradition, from Calvin to Kuyper, Stoker, Dooyeweerd and Vollenhoven – all thinkers who realised that the biblical starting point of life indeed touches the heart, the religious root, of humankind and therefore cannot remain restricted to church life and religion in its narrow sense, but must come to expression in all walks of life. This awareness was a fruit of the Christian worldview and lifeview which currently is confronted by the Big Bang claims and by neo-Darwinism – both movements taking on cultic dimensions with an intolerance towards everyone who does not accept their perspective. Their attitude generated serious reactions on two websites, the impact of which was discussed in this article. Some problems entailed in Darwinism and physicalistic materialism were highlighted, before attention was given to the status of natural laws and normative principles. Particular attention was given to the elimination of God’s law and the way in which modern Humanism explored the two cornerstones of modern nominalism, up to the point where human understanding was elevated to become the a priori formal law-giver of nature. This legacy was continued both by the later developments within the Baden school of neo-Kantian thought and Postmodernism,which is placed within the context of the three succeeding epistemic ideals of the past three centuries. Rationality can only fulfil its true calling when it accounts for the cohering diversity within reality without becoming a victim of any form of reductionism – and by following this guiding star, Koers will continue to strengthen its invaluable contribution to the advancement of Christian scholarship.

Normativity I – The Dialectical Legacy

With Habermas it is important to realize that one has to differentiate between moral and non-moral (a-moral) norms, which is different from what is immoral. However, since the Renaissance reflections on human freedom were caught up in the dialectic of necessity (nature) and freedom. A brief sketch is given of the development of this dialectic within modern philosophy – as it was manifested in the thought of Descartes, Hobbes, Leibniz, Locke, Berkely, Hume, Kant, Schelling, Hegel, Comte, Marxism, the Baden school of neo-Kantianism (Windelband, Rickert, Weber) and existentialism (Jaspers, Merleau-Ponty). The influence of the neo-Kantian opposition of facts and values within social thought is briefly highlighted, followed by a brief characterization of the normative inclination of human beings. Then some of the problems entailed in the modern concept of freedom are analyzed in relation to the idea of autonomy. This idea is burdened by the problem that the conditions for being human have to coincide with what meets these conditions, namely the human being. In addition it is difficult to derive collective norms from the autonomy of a single individual. The alternative avenue suggested by the idea of ontic normativity will be investigated in a separate article, exploring the way towards a more integral understanding of normativity.

Two Routes "to Concreteness" in the Work of the Bakhtin Circle

In 1918 the young Georg Lukics published an obituary of the last major Baden School neo-Kantian Emil Lask in which the latter's varied work was commended for being underlain by an essential common [Drang]: the to concreteness.' This was especially problematic, however, in the work of thinkers overtly committed to neo-Kantianism, a doctrine that was in its own time a byword for abstruseness and academic abstraction. Just how concrete could a neo-Kantian idealism become without abandoning its core insistence that the world is produced by indwelling categories of mind? Lask pursued this problem with a thoroughness unmatched by any other German neo-Kantian, and in doing so he became an important influence on, among others, Lukacs, Max Weber, and Martin Heidegger. This article discusses the prevalence of the same in the varied work of those Russian champions of neo-Kantianism, the Bakhtin Circle, where concreteness is invoked so frequently that it almost begins to take on the character of a mantra. The case of the Bakhtin Circle is especially illustrative because the drive to concreteness, which all members of the Circle shared, resulted in a significant difference of opinion about the extent to which the central theses of neo-Kantianism can be salvaged. Like Lask, Bakhtin was particularly keen to maintain the core of neoKantian ideas, while Voloshinov and, following behind him, Medvedev, were much less averse to breaking with the central project of German idealism itself. In each case the Brentanian notion of intentionality, the doctrine that consciousness is always consciousness ofsomething, plays a central role. Consciousness exists in acts directed towards objects, existent or otherwise, that are given to consciousness. Brentano and his followers were invariably anti-Kantian, and they were extremely hostile to the central tenet of neo-Kantian idealism, that objects of consciousness are produced from categories dwelling in a tran

Commentary on Oakes's paper

In his opening remarks in Economy and Society, Max Weber states that the sociologist converts concepts into types and searches for formal rules of social action. He distinguishes sociology from history as a science by noting that the latter strives for causal analysis and the description of unique historical activities, structures, personalities and cultural phenomena. The concept of "meaning," in the sense of a comprehensive, interpretive sociology, must, however, embrace more than the contemporaneous. Sociology requires the organization of the knowledge of both past and present: This is accomplished in Weber's terms by ideal-types and, as the Baden School thought of it, by a theory of historical individuals. The epistemology of the Baden School did not abandon the original Kantian assumption that the function of our consciousness, of the "intellect" to be exact, is to categorize an otherwise unorganized stream of sensations. The emphasis on "conceptualization" in neo Kantian thought follows from this assumption. The question we raise in this paper is, must we still accept this assumption as our starting point? How would posing the problem of value-relationality and value judgment presented in Oakes's paper change if the individual as the subject of the ongoing process of the creation and diffusion of knowl? edge and of repeated and even unique events (or for that matter even the facts of nature) were thought of as existing intertwined through time in a network of relationality? This would allow us to construct and establish a system of "historical" processes on the basis of the qualities of the objects of our investigation themselves, rather than by any construction of this network drawn from the framework within our consciousness. Even in this formulation, the difference between knowing (kennen) and perception (erkennen) would remain, just as would that of the difference between causality in history and our judgment of the meaning of "historical facts." However, these prob? lems do not necessarily have an ontological impact if we shift our perspective to that of a theory of knowledge. Under a theory of knowledge as assumed for example by realists like Schuppe or Rehmke, individual existence need not necessarily be

From Painting into Literature: Carl Sternheim's Prose Style

IN common with other features of his work, Carl Stemheim's idiosyncratic prose style has provoked violent critical disagreement. On the one hand his language has been denounced as arbitrary and mannered, on the other extolled as a vehicle ideally suited to his unique vision. Sternheim's contemporaries were quick to take sides: the reviewer of Das literarische Echo invited his readers to translate Ulrike 'aus dem geschwollenen Phrasendeutsch in normale Sa:tze',t while Kurt Pinthus enthused over 'die fast wissenschaftliche FormuHerung der'Tatsachen und Geschehnisse'.2 The renewed Sternheim debate of recent years has failed to advance the argument significantly. W. Wendler has attempted to show that Sternheim's language is ~ legitimate and consistent expression of his theoretical position, while W. G. Sebald has sought to prove that the much vaunted precision of Sternheim's language is illusory and conflicts with the author's avowed intention of portraying individuality.3 These apparep.t1y irreconcilable views stem in part from a misunderstanding of Stemheim's own statements about literary language, compounded by a failure to distinguish between basic assumptions which inform all his work and the more exotic theories which he developed during his phase of overt political commitment from 1918 to about 1923. Nor has it generally been appreciated that his linguistic experimentation was a response to a much broader and very fashionable scepticism about language in the first two decades of this century. Not only his perceptIon of the problem but also his attempts to resolve it by developing techniques analogous to those of the visual arts reflect prevailing tastes. The cross-fertilization of literature and painting has seldom been advocated so passionately or implemented so successfully as in the period of German Expressionism. The main philosophical impetus behind Sternheim's early reflections on literary language derived from his encounter, in 1906, with the neo-Kantian philosophy of the Baden school, particularly the writings of Heinrich Rickert. Rickert's main work, Die Grenzen der naturwissenschaftlichen Begriffsbildung,

Twentieth Century Philosophy by Bernard Delfgaauw

668 BOOK REVIEWS first conclusion on the far side of an unbridged gap. Excerpt XLI which condenses the final book of Cahier Five should have been expanded or omitted. Some English-language bibliography and an index would have enhanced the value of this excellent book. J. PATOUT BuRNS, S. J. Regis CoUege Willowdale, Ontario, Canada Twentieth Century Philosophy. By BERNARD DELFGAAUW. Albany, N.Y.: Magi Books, 1969. Pp. 172, $4.95. Definitive critique or estimation of a study which claims so much territory for itself on the basis of so brief a treatment would be foolhardy. Delfgaauw's points are quickly made and, as one would hope, all judgments are pre-modified when offered. This is a well-done translation, by N. D. Smith of the fourth Dutch edition of De Wijsbegeerte van de 20e Eeuw written by a professor of philosophy at Groningen whose historical and scientific studies are gaining attention here. So far, this interest has resulted in translations of his profiles of Marx and de Chardin, his research on the problem of evolution, and a single volume survey of ancient and medieval philosophy. Delfgaauw's specialty, then, is synthesis. Rather than bicker over what he does not cover, let us attempt to render the tone and range of the present work best described as an essay on recent currents exclusive of the language-analysis strain. Contemporary philosophy from the Delfgaauw viewpoint has moved away from that of the last century by its fresh encounters with science and theology. It is newly conscious of a responsibility towards the world and listens in respectful posture to art :md literature. It is no longer " a philosophy that believes it can understand everything " but rathel' " a speculation that attempts to penetrate as deeply as possible a reality which, in the last resort, it is incapable of grasping." (p. Q7) The reasons for this situation are outlined in Part I as stemming from a tension between modern man's notion that reality is always largely determined by the structures science gives it and by an awareness-paradoxically causing feelings of both freedom and fear-that he himself is not determined by such factors. Delfgaauw elaborates on this tension through consideration of biological and psychological advances and our deepening appreciation of religious consciousness. Part II discusses four "answers " to this tension: neo-Thomism, twentieth-century Kantian and Hegelian thought, and l\farxism. The author does not underestimate the difficulty of isolating the actual responses to the contemporary problem within these tendencies. At bottom, the BOOK REVIEWS 669 delineation is hampered by the anterior question of what thinkers evidently working within these distinct traditions do in fact share with one another. This dilemma in demarcation is clearly observed among the nebulous grouping known as neo-Thomists. What, after all, is a neo-Thomist and how does he perceive his relationship first to Aquinas and second to contemporary thought? Does such a one attempt to speak or to listen, and if both, then in what proportion? The problematic is well presented, although Delfgaauw's own ...-iew surfaces in his observation that the movement " back " to Aquinas " is coming closer to achieving its original aim as it lends to disappear as a school." (p. 41) With regard to the .Marburg and Baden schools of Kantian thought Delfgaauw sees Windelband's dictum: " Understanding Kant means going beyond him " as their shared conviction of how that thinker is to be brought into the present century. The two sub-schools differ in emphasis on the unity of thought as an objective. While Marburgers saw such logical unity behyccn mind and science that pure mathematics conjoined with natural science emerges as science par excellence, the Baden school placed central value on thought, harkening back to Lotze, and subjugated natural science to the humanities. The intricacies of what became of Hegel are well handled in this Part, too, and it is the British and Italian manifestations of his philosophy that receive chief attention. According to the author, the basic paradox of ·Marxist thought, the fourth of the tradition's responses to the modern tension, is the intrinsic opposition of politics to philosophy. When the philosopher convinces society to accept his view...