Average SAR Research Articles

Quantitative Relationship between Whole Body Averaged SARs and Voxel SARs in Numerical Human Models of Pregnant Woman and 3-years Child for Far-Field Exposure

Safety standards and guidelines for radio-frequency exposure are being set based on whole-body averaged SARs (WBA-SARs) and localized average SARs. In Japan, the WBA-SAR and 1g localized average SAR are set at 0.4W/kg and at 8W/kg, respectively, except for the arms and legs and surface of body. The safety limits of WBA-SARs were determined from observing the behavior destruction of animals for radio-frequency exposure, but those of localized average SARs were determined under the assumption that a spatial peak SAR value does not exceed 20-fold WBA-SARs without their biological evidences. In this paper, to confirm whether or not the above assumption is valid, we calculated WBA-SARs and voxel SARs in the frequency range from 50MHz to 2GHz in anatomical-based human numerical models for pregnant woman and 3-years child for vertically and horizontally polarized far-field exposures, and derived the histogram and cumulative relative frequency of voxel SARs to obtain the quantitative relationship between WBA-SARs and voxel SARs. As a result, we found that 99.90-percentile voxel SARs are not exceeding 20-fold WBA-SARs, while 99.00-percentile voxel SARs are smaller than 10-fold WBA-SARs in both human models.

Estimation of the whole-body averaged SAR of grounded human models for plane wave exposure at respective resonance frequencies

According to the international guidelines, the whole-body averaged specific absorption rate (WBA-SAR) is used as a metric of basic restriction for radio-frequency whole-body exposure. It is well known that the WBA-SAR largely depends on the frequency of the incident wave for a given incident power density. The frequency at which the WBA-SAR becomes maximal is called the ‘resonance frequency’. Our previous study proposed a scheme for estimating the WBA-SAR at this resonance frequency based on an analogy between the power absorption characteristic of human models in free space and that of a dipole antenna. However, a scheme for estimating the WBA-SAR in a grounded human has not been discussed sufficiently, even though the WBA-SAR in a grounded human is larger than that in an ungrounded human. In this study, with the use of the finite-difference time-domain method, the grounded condition is confirmed to be the worst-case exposure for human body models in a standing posture. Then, WBA-SARs in grounded human models are calculated at their respective resonant frequencies. A formula for estimating the WBA-SAR of a human standing on the ground is proposed based on an analogy with a quarter-wavelength monopole antenna. First, homogenized human body models are shown to provide the conservative WBA-SAR as compared with anatomically based models. Based on the formula proposed here, the WBA-SARs in grounded human models are approximately 10% larger than those in free space. The variability of the WBA-SAR was shown to be ±30% even for humans of the same age, which is caused by the body shape.

Measurement and validation of GHz-band whole-body average SAR in a human volunteer using reverberation chamber

The World Health Organization’s (WHO) recommendation on the need for further research for radio-frequency dosimetry has promoted studies on the whole-body average-specific absorption rate (WBA-SAR) in various kinds of anatomical-based numerical models. For experimental validation of GHz-band WBA-SARs in a real human, however, there have not so far been any published papers, despite the fact that, in 1982, Hill measured WBA-SARs at frequencies less than 40 MHz in human volunteers using a TEM-cell exposure system. In this study, we provide a measurement technique with a reverberation chamber for validating numerical dosimetry results on GHz-band WBA-SARs in living humans. We measured WBA-SARs at 1, 1.5 and 2 GHz for a 22 year old male volunteer, with a height of 173 cm and a weight of 73 kg, in the reverberation chamber, and compared the results with the finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) simulation. The reverberation chamber was excited by using a signal generator through an amplifier with an output power of 30–40 mW, which produced inside the chamber with the volunteer an average electric field strength of 5 V m−1 equivalent to an average power spectral density of 6.6 μW cm−2. The WBA-SARs were obtained from the measured S11 and S21 together with the power density. On the other hand, the WBA-SARs have been calculated using the FDTD method for an adult male model with almost the same physique as that of the volunteer exposed to the electromagnetic field in the reverberation chamber. From the comparison between the measured and the calculated WBA-SARs, we could confirm that the measured GHz-band WBA-SARs approximately agree with the FDTD calculated results.

Evaluation of the RF heating of a generic deep brain stimulator exposed in 1.5 T magnetic resonance scanners

The radio frequency (RF) electromagnetic field of magnetic resonance (MR) scanners can result in significant tissue heating due to the RF coupling with the conducting parts of medical implants. The objective of this article is to evaluate the advantages and shortcomings of a new four-tier approach based on a combined numerical and experimental procedure, designed to demonstrate safety of implants during MR scans. To the authors' best knowledge, this is the first study analyzing this technique. The evaluation is performed for 1.5 T MR scanners using a generic model of a deep brain stimulator (DBS) with a straight lead and a helical lead. The results show that the approach is technically feasible and provides sound and conservative information about the potential heating of implants. We demonstrate that (1) applying optimized tools results in reasonable uncertainties for the overall evaluation; (2) each tier reduces the overestimation by several dB at the cost of more demanding evaluation steps; (3) the implant with the straight lead would cause local temperature increases larger than 18 °C at the RF exposure limit for the normal operating mode; (4) Tier 3 is not sufficient for the helical implant; and (5) Tier 4 might be too demanding to be performed for complex implants. We conclude with a suggestion for a procedure that follows the same concept but is between Tier 3 and 4. In addition, the evaluation of Tier 3 has shown consistency with current scan practice, namely, the resulting heat at the lead tip is less than 3.5 °C for the straight lead and 0.7 °C for the helix lead for scans at the current applied MR scan restrictions for deep brain stimulation at a head average SAR of 0.1 W/kg.

Determining the influence of Korean population variation on whole-body average SAR

Compliance of the ICNIRP reference and IEEE action levels with the basic restrictions on whole-body average (WBA) SAR was investigated based on age, physique, and posture under isolated and grounded conditions. First, Korean male models 1, 3, 5, 7, and 20 years of age with body sizes in the 50th percentile were developed and used as the test subjects: 1y50th, 3y50th, 5y50th, 7y50th, and 20y50th. The effects of age-dependent dielectric properties due to the water content of the tissue on WBA SAR were analysed, and showed that the changes in WBA SAR are marginal. At the ages of 1, 5, and 20, thin models 1y10th, 5y10th, and 20y10th with body sizes in the 10th percentile for the horizontal plane were added in order to determine the influence of physical variations of the population. We considered standing postures with arms up and arms down. The WBA SAR for each human model was calculated when exposed to a vertically polarized plane wave in the frequency range of 10 MHz–3 GHz using the finite-difference time-domain method. The evaluated WBA SAR-based safety factor of each model is discussed for exposure to the ICNIRP reference and IEEE action levels. Finally, the lowest external electric field strength required to produce the basic restrictions on the WBA SAR, 0.08 W kg−1, was obtained. The results showed that the ICNIRP public reference level is not conservative in the frequency range of 20–200 MHz for an arms-up posture, in the range of 40–200 MHz for an arms-down posture, and above 1 GHz for both postures. The IEEE action level is different from the ICNIRP reference level below 30 MHz, where most cases showed a safety factor of less than 50, which is the minimum value compliant with the basic restrictions for exposure to the general public.

An investigation impact of user’s positions in closed space over SAR in the head induced from mobile phone

The purpose of this work was to investigate the impact of user’s positions in close space over the variations of SAR distribution in human head induced from mobile phone under the worst case conditions. The “worst case” considered in this paper refers to conditions that include (1) a half-wavelength dipole antenna, placed near the model of human head—SAM phantom; (2) a vertically oriented dipole antenna, parallel to the side walls of closed space for maximum reflection; (3) metallic closed space acts as a resonant cavity; and (4) 360 randomly selected observation points. We also used a free space model for comparative purposes. The maximum 1- and 10-g average SAR and average SAR in whole-exposed object probability density function curves have been derived to illustrate the percentage of SAR values that have been induced inside SAM for different locations of user in the closed space. The obtained results show that in more than 86.7% of all investigated user’s positions in the metallic closed space, the induced maximum 1-g average SAR in user’s head is in the boundaries of ±10% of maximum 1-g average SAR, when the user use mobile phone in free space. This relationship keep still at maximum 10-g average SAR, where in 85.9% from all investigated user’s positions, SAR values are in boundaries of ±10% of maximum 10-g average SAR in free space. The results showed that closed space causes more significant changes on average SAR in whole-exposed object than maximal SAR values. When we estimated the average SAR in whole-exposed SAM in 85% from all investigated user’s position in closed space, the induced SAR is higher than SAR values in free space model. It can be noted that the highest obtained SAR values in closed space were with 8.5% (for 1 g), 6.7% (for 10-g average SAR), and 15.1% (for average SAR in whole SAM) higher than these of the free space.

Analysis of Adult and Child Exposure to Uniform Plane Waves at Mobile Communication Systems Frequencies (900 MHz–3 GHz)

The problem of adult and child exposure to uniform plane waves in the frequency range from 900 MHz to 3 GHz, employed by the fixed stations of the most widely used mobile communication systems, is investigated. Anatomically scaled models of a 7-year-old child, a 13-year-old child, and an adult were developed, starting from the visible-human dataset. The dosimetric analysis was performed using a parallel implementation of the finite-difference time-domain method. A uniform plane wave of either vertical or horizontal polarization was used as the incident field. The results showed that the whole-body averaged SARs are higher in the smaller (child) models. Specifically, for adult exposure to fields in compliance with reference levels promulgated by International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection and IEEE-2005 guidelines, the resulting SAR values are lower than the basic restrictions, as expected. However, the basic restrictions are exceeded for child exposures between 1.8 and 2.4 GHz. A comparison between SAR values in child models, derived from accurate anatomical scaling and those using simple uniform scaling, showed that the anatomical models are required only for accurate local SAR evaluation at the organ level, but are not necessary for compliance assessments, where whole-body averaged SAR is generally the limiting parameter. Simple empirical formulas to relate the whole-body averaged SAR to body dimensions are proposed. Their validity was confirmed by considering results obtained in this paper and SAR results available in the literature. Finally, a comparison between the Federal Communications Commission and IEEE-2005 exposure guidelines is provided.

Nonthermal GSM RF and ELF EMF effects upon rat BBB permeability

Since the late 1980s, our group has examined the effects of radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF), including pulse-modulated waves of the type emitted by mobile phones, upon the blood–brain barrier. In more than 2,000 rats, we have repeatedly demonstrated a passage of the rats’ own albumin from the blood through the brain capillaries into the surrounding brain parenchyma at SAR values down to 0.1mW/kg. In most of these experiments, the animals were exposed in TEM-cells, ventilated by an external electrical fan at 50 Hz. In the present study, we examined whether the extremely low frequency (ELF) magnetic fields from the fan (50 Hz, 0.3–1.5 μT) might add to the RF effect. Sixty-four rats were divided into 4 groups: RF only, ELF only and RF + ELF exposure plus a sham group. The GSM-900 MHz RF exposure was at the very low, nonthermal, average whole-body SAR level 0.4 mW/kg. Demonstration of the normally occurring albumin extravasation in the basal hypothalamus is our inbuilt control proving that the staining is reliable. Two full series of staining of the whole material gave negative results for hypothalamus. Not until we changed to avidin, biotin, and antibodies from a third supplier, we received an acceptable staining. Twenty-five percent of the RF animals had a pathological albumin leakage, while the ELF and RF + ELF groups with three and two pathological findings, respectively, were not significantly different from the control group. We conclude that the use of external fans has had no major influence upon the result.

Cytostatic response of NB69 cells to weak pulse-modulated 2.2 GHz radar-like signals

The present study investigates the response of two human cancer cell lines to a 24-h treatment with a 2.2-GHz, pulse-modulated (5 µs pulse duration, 100 Hz repetition rate) radar-like signal at an average SAR = 0.023 W/kg, using a newly designed setup for in vitro exposure to radiofrequency (RF) fields. A complete discretized model of the setup was created for numerical dosimetry using finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) software, SEMCAD X. The average dose of RF radiation absorbed by the cultures was calculated to be subthermal (ΔT < 0.1 °C). The RF exposure induced a consistent, statistically significant reduction in the cell number (13.5% below controls, P < 0.001) in the neuroblastoma NB69 line. This effect was accompanied with slight but statistically significant increases in the proportions of cells in phases G0/G1 and G2/M of the cell cycle (6% and 9%, respectively; P < 0.05 over controls). By contrast, the hepatocarcinoma cell line HepG2 did not respond to the same RF treatment. These results indicate that a pulse-modulated RF radiation with high instantaneous amplitude and low average power can induce cytostatic responses on specific, sensitive cancer cell lines. The effect would be mediated, at least in part, by alterations in the kinetics of the cell cycle.

Aneuploidy studies in human cells exposed in vitro to GSM-900 MHz radiofrequency radiation using FISH

Purpose: Since previous research found an increase in the rate of aneuploidies in human lymphocytes exposed to radiofrequencies, it seems important to perform further studies. The objective of this study was then to investigate whether the exposure to RF (radiofrequency) radiation similar to that emitted by mobile phones of a second generation standard, i.e., Global System for Mobile communication (GSM) may induce aneuploidy in cultured human cells.Materials and methods: The potential induction of genomic instability by GSM-900 MHz radiofrequency (GSM-900) was investigated after in vitro exposure of human amniotic cells for 24 h to average-specific absorption rates (SAR) of 0.25, 1, 2 and 4 W/kg in the temperature range of 36.3–39.7°C. The exposures were carried out in a wire-patch cell (WPC). The rate of aneuploidy of chromosomes 11 and 17 was determined by interphase FISH (Fluorescence In Situ Hybridisation) immediately after independent exposure of three different donors for 24 h. At least 100 interphase cells were analysed per assay.Results: No significant change in the rate of aneuploidy of chromosomes 11 and 17 was found following exposure to GSM-900 for 24 h at average SAR up to 4 W/kg.Conclusion: Our study did not show any in vitro aneuploidogenic effect of GSM using FISH and is not in agreement with the results of previous research.

CALCULATION OF WHOLE-BODY SAR FROM A 100 MHZ DIPOLE ANTENNA

This paper presents results of a dosimetry study at an FM broadcasting frequency of 100MHz. The work focused on SAR calculations with high resolution Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)- based full-body models. FDTD computer modeling used a half-wave dipole as the exposure source. Extensive calculations give the variation of SAR with distance and show that whole-body average SAR exhibits a difierent distance dependency from the incident power density. Body size has a signiflcant efiect on SAR. Based on the numerical results, an empirical formula was developed to describe the relationship between antenna input power and distance for the limiting SAR value.

Computational Electromagnetic Analysis in a Human Head Model with EEG Electrodes and Leads Exposed to RF-Field Sources at 915 MHz and 1748 MHz

An electromagnetic analysis of a human head with EEG electrodes and leads exposed to RF-field sources was performed by means of Finite-Difference Time-Domain simulations on a 1-mm(3) MRI-based human head model. RF-field source models included a half-wave dipole, a patch antenna, and a realistic CAD-based mobile phone at 915 MHz and 1748 MHz. EEG electrodes/leads models included two configurations of EEG leads, both a standard 10-20 montage with 19 electrodes and a 32-electrode cap, and metallic and high resistive leads. Whole-head and peak 10-g average SAR showed less than 20% changes with and without leads. Peak 1-g and 10-g average SARs were below the ICNIRP and IEEE guideline limits. Conversely, a comprehensive volumetric assessment of changes in the RF field with and without metallic EEG leads showed an increase of two orders of magnitude in single-voxel power absorption in the epidermis and a 40-fold increase in the brain during exposure to the 915 MHz mobile phone. Results varied with the geometry and conductivity of EEG electrodes/leads. This enhancement confirms the validity of the question whether any observed effects in studies involving EEG recordings during RF-field exposure are directly related to the RF fields generated by the source or indirectly to the RF-field-induced currents due to the presence of conductive EEG leads.

Estimation of Whole-Body Average SAR in Human Models Due to Plane-Wave Exposure at Resonance Frequency

This study proposes an equation for estimating whole-body average specific absorption rate (WBSAR) in human body models for plane-wave exposure at whole-body resonance frequency. This study is important because the WBSAR takes maximal at this frequency and approaches the basic restrictions in the international guidelines/standards for human protection. Therefore, the variability of the WBSAR at this frequency has attracted a great deal of attention. First, the dominant factors influencing the resonance frequency of the human body models are investigated for plane-wave exposures. An equation for estimating the WBSAR at the resonance frequency is then proposed based on an analogy to an antenna. This equation can estimate the WBSAR with the body mass index of the human body only for a given incident power density. The uncertainty of the WBSAR estimated with the proposed equation is approximately 10%, which is mainly attributed to the electrical constants of tissue, including the inhomogeneity of the human body model. The variability of the WBSAR due to the body shape was found to be 30% for humans of the same age.

Integrating Vegetation Indices Models and Phenological Classification with Composite SAR and Optical Data for Cereal Yield Estimation in Finland (Part I)

During 1996–2006 the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry in Finland, MTT Agrifood Research Finland and the Finnish Geodetic Institute carried out a joint remote sensing satellite research project. It evaluated the applicability of composite multispectral SAR and optical satellite data for cereal yield estimations in the annual crop inventory program. Three Vegetation Indices models (VGI, Infrared polynomial, NDVI and Composite multispetral SAR and NDVI) were validated to estimate cereal yield levels using solely optical and SAR satellite data (Composite Minimum Dataset). The average R2 for cereal yield (yb) was 0.627. The averaged composite SAR modeled grain yield level was 3,750 kg/ha (RMSE = 10.3%, 387 kg/ha) for high latitude spring cereals (4,018 kg/ha for spring wheat, 4,037 kg/ha for barley and 3,151 kg/ha for oats).

In Vitro Evaluation of MR Imaging Issues at 3T for Aneurysm Clips Made from MP35N: Findings and Information Applied to 155 Additional Aneurysm Clips

Aneurysm clips need to be tested at 3T to characterize MR imaging concerns, including magnetic field interactions, MR imaging-related heating, and artifacts. Therefore, we evaluated these risks for aneurysm clips. Three different MP35N aneurysm clips (Codman Slim-Line Aneurysm Clip, straight, blade length 25-mm; Codman Slim-Line Aneurysm Clip Graft, 5-mm diameter x 5-mm width; Codman Slim-Line Aneurysm Clip, reinforcing 30 degrees angle, 6-mm x 18-mm) that represented the largest mass for 155 additional clips made from MP35N were tested. The clips were evaluated at 3T for magnetic field interactions, heating, and artifacts. We studied MR imaging-related heating, placing the clip in a gelled-saline-filled phantom with MR imaging performed by using a transmit/receive radio-frequency body coil at a whole-body average SAR of 3 W/kg for 15 minutes. Artifacts were characterized by using T1-SE and GRE pulse sequences. Each aneurysm clip showed relatively minor magnetic field interactions, which would not cause movement in situ. Heating was not excessive (highest temperature change, <1.8 degrees C). Artifacts may create problems if the area of interest is in the same area or close to the aneurysm clip. The results of this investigation demonstrated that it would be acceptable (ie, "MR conditional" using current terminology) for patients with these aneurysm clips to undergo MR imaging at < or =3T. Notably, on the basis of the sizes of the clips that underwent testing, these findings pertain to 155 additional aneurysm clips made from the same material.

SAR and power implications of different RF shimming strategies in the pelvis for 7T MRI

To determine the best radiofrequency (RF) shimming method for 7 T body imaging that provides sufficient B(1)(+) excitation inside the target region while energy deposition (SAR) and power demands are as low as possible and that does not incorporate anatomy specific electric field information inside the patient models, as this information is not available in practice. Finite difference time domain (FDTD) simulations were used to evaluate five RF shimming strategies for the pelvis inside a body coil. The results were compared to the theoretical best solution that could be achieved if the electric field inside the patient was known. Most of the RF shimming strategies were successful. However, between the different strategies a factor of two difference in average SAR reduction, a factor of three difference in local maximum SAR reduction, and a factor of 20 difference in power efficiency was observed. Phase matching was found to be the most promising RF shimming method for the body coil used and patient models. RF shimming can reduce the SAR and improve power efficiency in an accurate patient model without knowing the electric field. However, choosing the right method is critical to prevent unexpected behavior in local SAR deposition.

Spatial averaging of fields from half-wave dipole antennas and corresponding SAR calculations in the NORMAN human voxel model between 65 MHz and 2 GHz

If an antenna is located close to a person, the electric and magnetic fields produced by the antenna will vary in the region occupied by the human body. To obtain a mean value of the field for comparison with reference levels, the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) and International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) recommend spatially averaging the squares of the field strength over the height the body. This study attempts to assess the validity and accuracy of spatial averaging when used for half-wave dipoles at frequencies between 65 MHz and 2 GHz and distances of λ/2, λ/4 and λ/8 from the body. The differences between mean electric field values calculated using ten field measurements and that of the true averaged value were ∼15% in the 600 MHz to 2 GHz range. The results presented suggest that the use of modern survey equipment, which takes hundreds rather than tens of measurements, is advisable to arrive at a sufficiently accurate mean field value. Whole-body averaged and peak localized SAR values, normalized to calculated spatially averaged fields, were calculated for the NORMAN voxel phantom. It was found that the reference levels were conservative for all whole-body SAR values, but not for localized SAR, particularly in the 1–2 GHz region when the dipole was positioned very close to the body. However, if the maximum field is used for normalization of calculated SAR as opposed to the lower spatially averaged value, the reference levels provide a conservative estimate of the localized SAR basic restriction for all frequencies studied.

Assessment of SAR in the tissues near a cochlear implant exposed to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields

Cochlear implants (CI) are electronic devices used to restore partial hearing to people with severe hearing impairment. This paper aims to investigate if the introduction of a CI has an effect on SAR distribution in a head model exposed to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF EMF) at mobile communication frequencies. The head model was obtained by image segmentation, the implant was modelled as a geometric structure and the exposure source was modelled as a uniform plane wave at 900 MHz, 1750 MHz and 1950 MHz, incident on the side of the head with the CI. Vertical and horizontal polarizations were simulated. Results show that the presence of a CI inside the cochlea produces negligible variations in the averaged SAR values, both in the head and in the cochlear tissues, although very localized differences in point SAR were found in the cochlea. Globally, these results suggest that finding harmful effects in the cochlear tissues will be unlikely.

Influence of electromagnetic polarization on the whole-body averaged SAR in children for plane-wave exposures

The present study investigated the whole-body averaged specific absorption rate (WBSAR) in an infant model with the finite-difference time-domain method. The focus of the present study is the effect of polarization of incident electromagnetic waves on the WBSAR. This is because most previous studies investigated the WBSAR for plane-wave exposure with a vertically aligned electric field. Our computational results revealed that the WBSAR for plane-wave exposure with a vertically aligned electric field is smaller than that with a horizontally aligned electric field for frequencies above 2 GHz. The main reason for this difference is attributed to be the component of the surface area perpendicular to the electric field of the incident wave.

Specific absorption rates in the human head and shoulder for passive UHF RFID systems

In this paper, we use a human head and shoulder model to extend the analysis of SAR in the human head due to radiation caused by UHF RFID readers. We use an FEM human head and shoulder model with a voxel size of 8 mm for the tetrahedral and 25 distinct tissues to analyse the peak one-voxel SAR, spatial-peak 1 g cube of tissue SAR, spatial-peak 10 g cube of tissue SAR and the average SAR in the human head. We study the SAR in the human head at 1 W radiated power of a 7.4 dB RFID reader patch antenna at distances of 10 cm, 100 cm and 1,000 cm from the human head. We show that an RFID reader at 10 cm from the human head presents a SAR above 1.6 W/kg for both the spatial-peak 1 g and 10 g cube of tissue, the maximum value allowed by the FCC in the USA.