Raw Material Acquisition Research Articles

Rotten ivory as raw material source in European Upper Palaeolithic

Human manipulation on mammoth ivory is widely known from the archaeological record of the Upper Palaeolithic. The ring notching technique to break a tusk can be documented from the Early Aurignacian with continuous traditions in the Gravettian/Pavlovian. Experiments with rotten and fresh elephant ivory highlight for many Palaeolithic objects the analogy to breakage patterns in a significant decomposition process. The use of rotten ivory is especially evident in several Upper Palaeolithic art objects. These ivory plates, showing a concave inner surface caused by rotting, were the raw material for several Aurignacian figurines from the Swabian Alb (Southern Germany) and Gravettian figurines from Southern Moravia. The use of rotten ivory in a “carve and splinter technique” will be discussed for the lion man from Hohlenstein-Stadel. Strategies of deliberate maceration can reduce working costs. Procurement of rotten ivory is conceivable as a chaîne opératoire, either starting by killing the animal and caching of the tusks, or harvesting of specific weathered material from the land surface. In particular, the latter behavior gives reason to consider that raw material acquisition as “recycling”.

Overview of Sustainability Studies of CNC Machining and LAM of Stainless Steel

Laser additive manufacturing (LAM), known also as 3D printing, is a powder bed fusion (PBF) type of additive manufacturing (AM) technology used to fabricate metal parts out of metal powder. The development of the technology from building prototype parts to functional parts has increased remarkably in 2000s. LAM of metals is promising technology that offers new opportunities to manufacturing and to resource efficiency. However, there is only few published articles about its sustainability.Aim in this study was to create supply chain model of LAM and CNC machining and create a methodology to carry out a life cycle inventory (LCI) data collection for these techniques. The methodology of the study was literature review and scenario modeling. The acquisition of raw material, production phase and transportations were used as basis of comparison. The modelled scenarios were fictitious and created for industries, like aviation and healthcare that often require swift delivery as well as customized parts.The results of this study showed that the use of LAM offers a possibility to reduce downtime in supply chains of spare parts and reduce part inventory more effectively than CNC machining. Also the gap between customers and business is possible to be shortened with LAM thus offering a possibility to reduce emissions due to less transportation. The results also indicated weight reduction possibility with LAM due to optimized part geometry which allow lesser amount of metallic powder to be used in making parts.

Integrating Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services in Life Cycle Assessment: Methodological Proposals for New Challenges

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a method used to quantify potential environmental impacts in the entire life cycle of a product or service, starting at raw material acquisition, production, use, and eventually its disposal. It is the leading methodology for environmental metrics today – the French government recently ran a pilot for a labelling program for consumer goods where indicators displayed in labels should be calculated using LCA. The European Commission did the same for their Product Footprint Guidelines. However, LCA features many methodological shortcomings when dealing with biophysical indicators. Land use, biodiversity and ecosystem services are relevant aspects to policy-makers and consumers, but their characterization factors are not yet accurately calculated. LCA has a hard time grasping effects that are dynamic, scale-dependent, non-linear and/or hard to quantify unambiguously. In fact, out of the four conventional types of ecosystem services (provisioning services, regulating services, cultural services and supporting services) only the first and the last are partially captured in LCA results. Similarly, out of the five drivers of change to biodiversity identified by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (habitat change, climate change, pollution, invasive alien species and overexploitation) only the first three are included in standard LCA calculations. This review article presents a brief assessment of how biodiversity and ecosystem services are incorporated in LCA today. The standard Life Cycle Impact Assessment models are described according to the most recent developments. Ground-breaking work is undergoing, making the field very active and constantly innovating. For example, regionalized characterization factors for the impacts of biodiversity are now available using species richness as a proxy for the overall state of biodiversity. Tools for ecosystem services have also been proposed. Finally, a compilation of some challenges ahead is listed to present several ideas for the improvement of current impact assessment methods.

Tool production processes in lithic quarries from the Central Plateau of Santa Cruz, Argentina

Lithic resources at the Central Plateau of Santa Cruz (Argentina) are abundant, ubiquitous and of very good quality for knapping. They have been exploited by hunter–gatherer societies since the latest Pleistocene until the Late Holocene. The study of their distribution, availability, and ways of exploitation at the quarries, together with the information stemming from the archaeological sites, enable the understanding of the first stages of tool production and consumption.In this paper, two quarries from La María Archaeological Locality (Cantera de Sílex de CDM and Cantera Bosque Petrificado) are studied and compared. Their geomorphologic location is described. The lithological characteristics of the outcrops, the size of the stones, and the variability of raw materials available at them are also addressed. The accessibility and visibility of the quarries are analyzed. The way raw materials were exploited at the sources is evaluated taking into consideration their relationship with the local and regional structure of lithic resources. The information generated for the quarries is complemented and compared with the local trends identified for the habitation sites. This enabled the formulation of a general model about the first stages of production.Although the quarries have different types of raw materials (flint and silicified wood), results show that similar technological strategies were implemented in them. These are in agreement with the general trend at the local and regional levels. Both sources are easily accessible from the surrounding landscape. They are visible from nearby areas. Probably, they were exploited mainly from nearby sites. At the quarries, the first stages of tool production were performed: core decortication and preparation and the production of blanks. The acquisition of raw material involved the selection of good quality nodules and boulders and the production of polyhedral cores knapped in multiple directions. These cores could be transported to the habitation sites or could be discarded in situ while still presenting active platforms. On the other hand, differences in some procurement practices might be related to decisions and variations linked to the particular characteristics of the resources in both outcrops.

NEOLITHIC FLINT ASSEMBLAGES FROM BULGARIA: AN OVERVIEW

This paper offers a brief overview of the flint assemblages from the Neolithic period in Bulgaria (VI mill. cal BC) by following their evolution that depending on the context could also be called innovation, retardation or simply modification. Some significant changes occur during the Neolithic who reflected to all aspects of the flint industry - from the raw material acquisition via techno-typological parameters until the functional connotations of different artefacts categories. The empirical corpus of the study contains assemblages coming from 18 different sites. Expectedly whatever changes are attested as occurring alongside the evolution on the Tell settlements, there is no striking rupture and discontinuity in the flint industry as claimed on the basis of fragmentary assemblages coming from other sites belonging to different cultural stages/periods of the Neolithic. The paper ends with a series of challenging questions referring to different level of our knowledge and understanding of the gradual changes of the Neolithic lifeway.

Techno - Eco Assessment and Sustainable Development of a Novel "Muban Chombueng Product" of the Local Industries of Thailand

In this paper the scope of the study is grounded on the conceptual ideas of Cradle to Grave and discussion on the full process of the local pozzolanics soil blocks or Muban Chombueng Product, MCP. First, the raw materials extraction and acquisition process, followed by using an end product and the process of natural degradation. The goal of this carbon footprint, CF study is to be compare the best products between MCP and commercial cement block, CB with the least effect on the environment and to guide the development of masonry unit towards a net reduction of resource requirement and emissions.

Chain of Values in Cost Management: A Strategic Analysis in Agricultural Cooperative Paraná, Brazil

The aim of this study is to analyze the strategic context in the value chain cost management in agricultural cooperatives in the state of Paraná. The contribution to the state of the art theme is directed exploration of the literature produced by different authors related. The strategic and competitive analysis seeks to identify which items make up the value chain of organizations and their influences on the execution, planning and control your costs. The methodology was characterized as an empirical-analytic study conducted by survey research, collection, observation and data analysis. The choice of the sample for sending questionnaires directed to the representative of the agricultural sector in Paraná and Brazil's economy. Considering the limitations of the research, it was noted that the link between the different activities of agricultural cooperatives, begins in the acquisition of raw materials to after-sales of products developed by them. Thus, the different strategies on cost management of these companies, if considered in strategic cost analysis can result in competitive market advantage.

Life Cycle Assessment of Rock Wool Board and EPS Board

Although outer wall thermal insulation technology is an effective measure for building energy-saving, the production of thermal insulation materials causes serious impacts on environment. In the present investigation the resource, energy consumption and environmental emission of the two kinds of thermal insulation materials were analyzed, from the acquisition of raw materials to production process based on Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). The result show that life cycle energy consumption of rock wool board is 415MJ per functional unit, proximately twice of EPS board’s (220MJ). Overall, environmental impact indicators caused by rock wool board is more serious than EPS.

Safety criteria for the acquisition of meat in Brazilian University restaurants

The present study's objective was to analyze the procedures aimed at guaranteeing sanitary conditions when acquiring meat. The study was conducted with university restaurants of the Federal Institutions of Higher Education (IFES) located in the five regions of Brazil. Data were collected using a questionnaire and an evaluation list, which was available online to restaurant professionals. The results showed that restaurants chose one or two types of meat, the most frequent of which were beef and chicken. In restaurants managed by the IFES, the acquisition of raw material occurred by bidding. For vendor selection, the restaurants required product registration with the Inspection Service and requested regulation of the supplier by the Health Surveillance. Monitoring was carried out through a technical visit to the supplier and a review of the past records of the supplier. A higher percentage of restaurants in the Southeast region met appropriate sanitary and hygienic criteria for the receipt of meat, followed by the South, Midwest, Northeast and North. We conclude that restaurants meet most of the safety criteria set in the legislation. However, some weaknesses are evident in the physical and functional structure, the system of transportation of raw material and the records of control measures at the place of reception.

Simplifying a life cycle assessment of a mobile phone

The possibilities for full life cycle assessment (LCA) of new Information and Communication Technology (ICT) products are often limited, so simplification approaches are needed. The aim of this paper is to investigate possible simplifications in LCA of a mobile phone and to use the results to discuss the possibilities of LCA simplifications for ICT products in a broader sense. Another aim is to identify processes and data that are sensitive to different methodological choices and assumptions related to the environmental impacts of a mobile phone. Different approaches to a reference LCA of a mobile phone was tested: (1) excluding environmental impact categories, (2) excluding life cycle stages/processes, (3) using secondary process data from generic databases, (4) using input-output data and (5) using a simple linear relationship between mass and embodied emissions. It was not possible to identify one or a few impact categories representative of all others. If several impact categories would be excluded, information would be lost. A precautionary approach of not excluding impact categories is therefore recommended since impacts from the different life cycle stages vary between impact categories. Regarding use of secondary data for an ICT product similar to that studied here, we recommend prioritising collection of primary (specific) data on energy use during production and use, key component data (primarily integrated circuits) and process-specific data regarding raw material acquisition of specific metals (e.g. gold) and air transport. If secondary data are used for important processes, the scaling is crucial. The use of input-output data can be a considerable simplification and is probably best used to avoid data gaps when more specific data are lacking. Further studies are needed to provide for simplified LCAs for ICT products. In particular, the end-of-life treatment stage need to be further addressed, as it could not be investigated here for all simplifications due to data gaps.

Waste management Life Cycle Assessment: the case of a reciprocating air compressor in Brazil

Abstract Choose an environmentally End-of-Life (EoL) strategy is not an easy task. From a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) point of view, depending on the processes and destinations applied after use, the entire life cycle is affected, even earlier steps, such as the acquisition of raw materials and manufacturing. This paper aimed to assess the environmental impacts of an air compressor in Brazil, from cradle to the grave, with focus on the comparison of three waste management alternatives. We defined a Remanufacturing, Recycling and Landfilling scenarios following European Directive on waste management hierarchy. LCA methodology was applied to evaluate the potentials impacts on Global Warming, Abiotic Resource Depletion, Total Cumulative Energy Demand and Land Occupation based on primary data collected by the Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM). The case study indicates that the hotspot of this product system occurs in the use phase due the high demand of energy during its long life span. This predominance is such that it overcomes the differences among the three EoL scenarios. Removing this phase in LCA's result interpretation we found that for all categories Remanufacturing has the best environmental performance followed by Recycling and Landfilling. Remanufacturing was able to reduce the environmental impact by more than 40% compared to Landfilling through a reduced consumption of raw materials, manufacturing processes and environmental gains of avoided products.

The concrete delivery problem

From an operational point of view, Ready-Mixed Concrete Suppliers are faced with challenging operational problems such as the acquisition of raw materials, scheduling of production facilities, and the transportation of concrete. This paper is centered around the logistical and distributional part of the operation: the scheduling and routing of concrete, commonly known as the Concrete Delivery Problem (CDP). The problem aims at finding efficient routes for a fleet of (heterogeneous) vehicles, alternating between concrete production centers and construction sites, and adhering to strict scheduling and routing constraints. Thus far, a variety of CDPs and solution approaches have appeared in academic research. However, variations in problem definitions and the lack of publicly available benchmark data inhibit a mutual comparison of these approaches. Therefore, this work presents a more fundamental version of CDP, while preserving the main characteristics of the existing problem variations. Both exact and heuristic algorithms for CDP are proposed. The exact solution approaches include a Mixed Integer Programming (MIP) model and a Constraint Programming model. Similarly, two heuristics are studied: the first heuristic relies on an efficient best-fit scheduling procedure, whereas the second heuristic utilizes the MIP model to improve delivery schedules locally. Computational experiments are conducted on new, publicly accessible, data sets; results are compared against lower bounds on the optimal solutions.

The impact of biodiesel policy over raw material acquisition: a study about Brazilian Biodiesel National Programme

The aim of this article is to highlight and discuss the impacts of National Programme for Production and Use of Biodiesel – PNPB. This programme has some unique characteristics such as the incentive to social inclusion and local development by family farmers inclusion as oilseeds suppliers of biodiesel production, in this sense this study focus on biodiesel producer acquisition of raw material from family farmers, because it receives the strongest institutional pressures from the regulatory framework of PNPB. The study shows that the raw material acquisition strategy and processes has been arranged in a direction that guarantees and support the policy goals, many times in detriment of efficiency. The response given to the programme had led to it reinforcement and continuation.

Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of Traditional Bricks in Western Maharashtra, India

Bricks are one of the major materials used for the construction of buildings. With the booming infrastructure in India; 140 billion bricks were produced in 2001and 250 billion bricks in 2012. The production of bricks is estimated to be growing at a rate of 4% per year. India is the second largest producer of fired clay bricks with more than hundred thousand brick kilns in operation. Brick production is known to have diffused and seasonal environmental impact along with the social and economic impact. A life cycle assessment (LCA) study, to identify and quantify the environmental performance of the brick as a product, is carried out for the traditional brick kilns in and around the Sangli - Karad area of western Maharashtra, India. The LCA software, SIMAPRO 7.3.3, has been used to carry out the LCA impact studies. The LCA methodology adopted in the study has a scope from “cradle to gate”, including the raw material acquisition and transportation along with brick production. Energy use and emissions are quantified and the potential environmental burdens such as the GHG emissions, resource depletion, and loss of biodiversity, are assessed.

LONG-DISTANCE OBSIDIAN TRANSPORT IN PREHISTORIC NORTHEAST ASIA

A brief overview of recent obsidian source studies in Northeast Asia (Japan, Russian Far East, Korea, and Northeast China) is presented. Obsidian was a valuable commodity since the early Upper Palaeolithic, and the length of distances between sources and utilisation sites at that time (ca. 30,000–10,000 BP) was up to 800 km. In the Neolithic of Japan (Jomon), several large exchange networks existed, with obsidian transportation up to 1000 km from source to sites, often across wide-open waters. The use of multiple obsidian sources shows the complex nature of raw material acquisition and use in prehistory.

Crédito de habilitación o avío

En este tipo de crédito, el acreditado queda obligado a invertir el importe del crédito en la adquisición de las materias primas, materiales y además en el pago correspondiente a los jornales, salarios y gastos directos de explotación, indispensables para los fines que tienen contemplados la empresa de acuerdo a lo plasmado en el art. 321, de la Ley General de Títulos y Operaciones de Crédito (LGTOC). Además versa sobre bienes de consumo duradero como los tractores, procesadores, entre otros, usados para la industria, ganadería y agricultura.
 Este tipo de crédito está garantizado con las materias primas, materiales adquiridos y con los frutos, productos o artefactos que se obtengan con el crédito, aunque de antemano se sabe que estos son a futuro o pendientes de acuerdo al (art. 322, LGTOC).
 De hecho es un financiamiento ya sea de corto o mediano plazo, el importe se condiciona para ser invertido en elementos indispensables para incrementar y fomentar la producción de la empresa.
 Por lo regular el monto para el financiamiento es hasta un 80% del valor de los conceptos financiables (en el porcentaje a financiar puede variar de acuerdo a la institución). No quedan comprendidos los intereses en el crédito, ni tampoco las comisiones a cubrir por cada uno de los clientes.
 Quienes realizan este tipo de contrato, deben cubrir el préstamo en un plazo de cinco años, que se contabilizan desde el momento de la primera disposición del correspondiente contrato, debe estar en función la viabilidad del proyecto, el ciclo, productivo del negocio y además de los flujos de efectivo del mismo.

English

In contrast to the Neolithic or the Bronze Age, the social realities of the intervening periods are not well known in Anatolian archaeology. Thus, excavations at Camlibel Tarlasi, a site close to the later Hittite capital Hattusa, were undertaken to shed more light on this neglected time period. Camlibel Tarlasi is a small hamlet site dating into the mid fourth millennium BC, i.e. into the Late Chalcolithic. The location was used for a relatively short period of time – slightly longer than a century. Such small settlements are not often the focus of scientific investigation in Anatolia, but can produce quite interesting information. As became apparent, many of the activities at Camlibel Tarlasi were related to the presence of a small copper ore deposit in the vicinity. Plentiful remains of a copper-working cottage industry, including remains of ore, slag, crucibles and finished metal artefacts, were uncovered among the ruins of the prehistoric houses. Somewhat unexpected were indications of far-reaching contacts. Maritime shells must have travelled inland from the shores of either the Mediterranean or the Black Sea. The production and use of artificial steatite micro beads and the custom of cranial deformation point to influences from the upper Euphrates area. A casting mould for ring-shaped figurines establishes a link to the southern Balkans. The inhabitants of Camlibel Tarlasi also had great interest in exotic flint which arrived at the site in the shape of long retouched blades. While the source areas for flint objects are somewhat difficult to trace, the situation is much better for obsidian, which is another exotic material used for making tools at the site. Turkey has many sources of obsidian which were utilised over millennia for the production of stone tools. One of the most significant source areas for Near Eastern obsidian is located some 200km to the south of Camlibel Tarlasi, in Cappadocia. Smaller deposits, however, have recently been discovered in northern Anatolia as well, in much closer proximity to the site. The chemical composition of each separate flow of obsidian has a potentially unique elemental signature which allows for the source identification of obsidian artefacts through chemical analysis. A natural question arises in the context of Late Chalcolithic raw material acquisition strategies: did the residents of Camlibel Tarlasi acquire local obsidian or did they prefer more exotic obsidian materials for the production of their tools? Recent advancements in portable technologies, such as portable XRF analysers, have allowed us to characterise completely the entire assemblage of obsidian artefacts from the site, which using the traditional laboratory-based method would have been a prohibitively expensive and time consuming undertaking. With the help of a BIAA study grant, a representative sample was taken to the French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS) in Orleans to test the accuracy of the portable XRF results by using ICPMS – a robust technology which can measure accurately minute quantities of elements down to the scale of parts-per-billion (ppb) – and to identify the source areas. Comparative results indicate not only a clear correlation, verifying the portable XRF data, but also allow us to define clear groups of obsidian. Results indicate that the entire obsidian assemblage derives from exotic Cappadocian sources, namely from the well-known obsidian sources at Acigol, Golludag and Nenezi Dag, and not from more local sources in northcentral Anatolia. This is significant because Cappadocian obsidian can be found at many contemporary sites as far away as the southern Levant. It is clear that geographical proximity of the sources was not the decisive factor in the choice of obsidian supply. Although comparable data from more contemporaneous sites are needed to understand how exactly fourth millennium BC obsidian exchange worked, this study has demonstrated how Camlibel Tarlasi participated in overlapping exchange systems, maintaining communication with the wider world. Selection of obsidian artefacts from Camlibel Tarlasi

The fragmented character of Middle Palaeolithic stone tool technology

The importance of the transport of stone artefacts in structuring Neandertal lithic assemblages has often been addressed, but the degree to which this led to fragmentation of lithic reduction over Middle Palaeolithic landscapes has not been explicitly studied thus far. Large-scale excavations of Middle Palaeolithic open-air sites and refitting studies of the retrieved assemblages have yielded new, high-resolution data on the mobile aspects of Neandertal stone tool technology. In this paper, we integrate lithic technology and raw material data from recent studies of Middle Palaeolithic open-air and rock shelter sites in Western Europe. We demonstrate that the results of a variety of typological, technological (especially refitting), and lithological studies have important consequences for our knowledge of the acquisition of raw materials and subsequent production, usage and discard of stone artefacts in the Middle Palaeolithic. Neandertal production and use of stone tools was fragmented in three domains: the spatial, the temporal and the social domain. We show that this versatile segmentation of stone artefact handling strategies is a main determinant of the character of the Neandertal archaeological record. Our data testify to ubiquitous and continuous transport of stone artefacts of a wide variety of forms, picked by Neandertals using selection criteria that were sometimes far removed from what archaeologists have traditionally considered, and to some degree still consider, to be desired end products of knapping activities. The data presented here testify to the variability and versatility of Middle Palaeolithic stone tool technology, whose fragmented character created very heterogeneous archaeological assemblages, usually the product of a wide variety of independent import, use, discard and/or subsequent transport events.

Analysis of the Textile Materials and Art Forms of Minorities in Yunnan

The minorities in Yunnan are quite skilled at weaving and embroidering techniques, and they boast the unique materials and special textile art form. With the plant material resources in Yunnan, they are able to create numerous kinds of patterns and drawings on the textile fabric, surrounded by the local rural flavor and intense ethnic characteristics. However, with the social and economic development, together with the opening to the outside world, this ethnic textile activity which reserves much of the primitive style and national characteristics has shrunk and stalled at this moment, turning into the modern manufacturing of commercialization. It is a necessity for the textile art design to embody distinctive nationality and local characteristics before opening to the world. At present, it is of great value to study the textile materials and art forms of the minorities in depth and figure out the whole process from the acquisition and preliminary processing of textile raw material to spinning, weaving, printing and dyeing.

Sustainability assessment of wood-based bioenergy – A methodological framework and a case-study

The sustainability of the utilization of wood biomass for energy and other purposes has been widely assessed in different studies. Especially discrete methods from the family of Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA), such as Outranking methods, Multi-Attribute Utility Theory, and Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) are often applied. AHP is considered one of the most promising options to be used in sustainability assessments, because it is comprehensible to apply and it incorporates the preferences of decision-makers in an advanced manner. In this study, we present a theoretical multi-dimensional framework based on a modified version of AHP for assessing sustainability and apply it in a case of wood-based bioenergy production in eastern Finland. The framework includes four dimensions of sustainability and life cycle phases from the acquisition of raw material to manufacturing the final product. The production systems used in the empirical sustainability assessments are a local heat production plant, a combined heat and power production plant, and a wood pellet processing plant. Local sustainability experts identified indicators relevant at the regional scale. The impact assessment data were obtained from literature, by interviewing the managers of the bioenergy plants, and from a postal survey administered to local people. The local heat provider received the highest sustainability index; however, there were no considerable differences between the sustainability indexes. None of the bioenergy production systems can be considered the most sustainable regardless of the assumptions employed in the framework. The framework provided the basis for a quantitative, interdisciplinary approach to assess sustainability.