Young Fruit Research Articles

Isolation and characterization of S-Adenosylmethionine synthase gene from cucumber and responsive to abiotic stress

S-adenosylmethionine synthetase (SAMS) catalyzes methionine and ATP to generate S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAM). In plants, accumulating SAMS genes have been characterized and the majority of them are reported to participate in development and stress response. In this study, two putative SAMS genes (CsSAMS1 and CsSAMS2) were identified in cucumber (Cucumis Sativus L.). They displayed 95% similarity and had a high identity with their homologous of Arabidopsis thaliana and Nicotiana tabacum. The qRT-PCR test showed that CsSAMS1 was predominantly expressed in stem, male flower, and young fruit, whereas CsSAMS2 was preferentially accumulated in stem and female flower. And they displayed differential expression profiles under stimuli, including NaCl, ABA, SA, MeJA, drought and low temperature. To elucidate the function of cucumber SAMS, the full-length CDS of CsSAMS1 was cloned, and prokaryotic expression system and transgenic materials were constructed. Expressing CsSAMS1 in Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3) improved the growth of the engineered strain under salt stress. Overexpression of CsSAMS1 significantly increased MDA content, H2O2 content, and POD activity in transgenic lines under non-stress condition. Under salt stress, however, the MDA content of transgenic lines was lower than that of the wild type, the H2O2 content remained high, the polyamine and ACC synthesis in transgenic lines exhibited a CsSAMS1-expressed dependent way. Taken together, our results suggested that both CsSAMS1 and CsSAMS2 were involved in plant development and stress response, and a proper increase of expression level of CsSAMS1 in plants is benificial to improving salt tolerance.

Morphological, molecular phylogenetic and pathogenic analyses of Erysiphe spp. causing powdery mildew on cashew plants in Brazil

Cashew powdery mildew is presently the most important disease of cashew trees in all Brazilian growing regions. Although it was described over a century ago, it had never threatened the Brazilian cashew industry until the first decade of the 21st century. Morphological and pathogenic evidence indicated the possibility of different pathogen species being involved in early and late types of cashew powdery mildew. This study was designed to elucidate this issue by comparing two different powdery mildew fungi occurring on cashew plants in Brazil according to the morphological characteristics, phylogenetic relationships with closely related powdery mildew fungi and pathogenic relationships. Based on morphology, molecular phylogenetics and pathogenicity on cashew, it was shown that two species of powdery mildew specimens are without question associated with cashew trees. One species, which infects young immature tissues such as shiny leaves, flowers and young fruits, is Erysiphe quercicola, while Erysiphe necator is associated exclusively with mature leaves. This is the first report of both E. quercicola and E. necator causing cashew powdery mildew, and the first detection of E. necator on cashew.

The genome assembly and annotation of yellowhorn (Xanthoceras sorbifolium Bunge).

BackgroundYellowhorn (Xanthoceras sorbifolium Bunge), a deciduous shrub or small tree native to north China, is of great economic value. Seeds of yellowhorn are rich in oil containing unsaturated long-chain fatty acids that have been used for producing edible oil and nervonic acid capsules. However, the lack of a high-quality genome sequence hampers the understanding of its evolution and gene functions.FindingsIn this study, a whole genome of yellowhorn was sequenced and assembled by integration of Illumina sequencing, Pacific Biosciences single-molecule real-time sequencing, 10X Genomics linked reads, Bionano optical maps, and Hi-C. The yellowhorn genome assembly was 439.97 Mb, which comprised 15 pseudo-chromosomes covering 95.42% (419.84 Mb) of the assembled genome. The repetitive fractions accounted for 56.39% of the yellowhorn genome. The genome contained 21,059 protein-coding genes. Of them, 18,503 (87.86%) genes were found to be functionally annotated with ≥1 "annotation" term by searching against other databases. Transcriptomic analysis showed that 341, 135, 125, 113, and 100 genes were specifically expressed in hermaphrodite flower, staminate flower, young fruit, leaf, and shoot, respectively. Phylogenetic analysis suggested that yellowhorn and Dimocarpus longan diverged from their most recent common ancestor ∼46 million years ago.ConclusionsThe availability and subsequent annotation of the yellowhorn genome, as well as the identification of tissue-specific functional genes, provides a valuable reference for plant comparative genomics, evolutionary studies, and molecular design breeding.

Report of Hyalopeplus similis Poppius (Hemiptera: Miridae) Infesting Mango in India

Hyalopeplus similis Poppius is herein reported attacking young mango fruits, the first report on the commercial variety, Amrapali. Feeding of the bug on the immature fruit surface led to damage that resulted in the development of scarring and pitted marks which enlarged as the fruit developed. As it is a direct pest on fruit this bug needs to be carefully monitored to prevent fruit loss and avoid quarantine issues. The bug was not recorded on older fruits closer to harvest.

Age-Dependent Changes in Transcription Factor FOXO Targeting in Female Drosophila.

FOXO transcription factors have long been associated with longevity control and tissue homeostasis. Although the transcriptional regulation of FOXO have been previously characterized (especially in long-lived insulin mutants and under stress conditions), how normal aging impacts the transcriptional activity of FOXO is poorly understood. Here, we conducted a chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing (ChIP-Seq) analysis in both young (2-week-old) and aged (5-week-old) wild-type female fruit flies, Drosophila melanogaster, to evaluate the dynamics of FOXO gene targeting during aging. Intriguingly, the number of FOXO-bound genes dramatically decreases with age (from 2617 to 224). Consistent to the reduction of FOXO binding activity, many genes targeted by FOXO in young flies are transcriptionally altered with age, either up-regulated (FOXO-repressing genes) or down-regulated (FOXO-activating genes) in adult head tissue. In addition, we show that many FOXO-bound genes in wild-type flies are unique from those in insulin receptor substrate chico mutants. Distinct from chico mutants, FOXO targets specific cellular processes (e.g., actin cytoskeleton) and signaling pathways (e.g., Hippo, MAPK) in young wild-type female flies. FOXO targeting on these pathways decreases with age. Interestingly, FOXO targets in aged flies are enriched in cellular processes like chromatin organization and nucleosome assembly. Furthermore, FOXO binding to core histone genes is well maintained at aged flies. Together, our findings provide new insights into dynamic FOXO targeting under normal aging and highlight the diverse and understudied regulatory mechanisms for FOXO transcriptional activity.

Induksi Mutasi Tanaman Leunca (Solanum nigrum L.) untuk Meningkatkan Keragaman Kandungan Tanin

Leunca (Solanum nigrum L. ) is one of the indigenous vegetables in Indonesia. The fruit of this vegetable is green and has bitter taste because of its tannin content. The objectives of this study were to get lethal dose 50 (LD50), diversity and to obtain candidates of mutant plants with high and low tannin content in young fruit and ripe fruit in leunca. The research was conducted at Pasir Kuda experimental station, Bogor; National Nuclear Energy Agency (BATAN), Jakarta; and postharvest laboratory of the Center for Tropical Horticulture Studies (PKHT IPB), Bogor, from December 2016 to July 2017. Leunca accession of SN 20 and SN 29 were irradiated using doses of 0, 100, 150, 200, and 250 Gy of gamma ray. The LD50 values for SN 20 and SN 29 were 171.944 Gy and 190.949 Gy, respectively. The analysis of tannin content was performed based on permanganate method by titration using potassium permanganate. The results showed that the highest tannin content of green stage fruit was found in SN20D3.5 with 200 Gy dose and the lowest was found in SN29D1.5 with 100 Gy dose. The highest tannin content of ripe fruit was found in SN20D4.6 with dose of 250 Gy and the lowest was found in SN20D3.1 with dose of 200 Gy. Recommended tannin content for leunca is the low tannin content.Keywords: diversity, gamma ray, indigenous vegetable, irradiation, LD50

PEMBERDAYAAN KELOMPOK WANITA TANI DI DESA SOMPAK MELALUI DIVERSIFIKASI OLAHAN BERBASIS LABU KUNING

The problem faced by the Padagi farmer group and the Nuk Diri farmer group is that yellow pumpkins are only sold in young condition for their needs as vegetables or sold their leaves so that farmers often face problems in living standards below the poverty line. The young pumpkin fruit is sold from house to house or sold at the village market. Partners do not know how to diversify various pumpkin processed products that have added value, are more resistant to storage and have a higher selling price. The method used in this activity is counseling, demonstration, training, and guidance in the process of making various pumpkins processed products such as nuggets, jams, brownies, sticks, and jelly candies. The evaluation was carried out on all activities. From this activity, it can be concluded that the level of partner participation has a positive impact on program implementation during training and mentoring. Â Keywords : processed products, pumpkin, group of female farmers.

The multi-allelic APRR2 gene is associated with fruit pigment accumulation in melon and watermelon

Color and pigment contents are important aspects of fruit quality and consumer acceptance of cucurbit crops. Here, we describe the independent mapping and cloning of a common causative APRR2 gene regulating pigment accumulation in melon and watermelon. We initially show that the APRR2 transcription factor is causative for the qualitative difference between dark and light green rind in both crops. Further analyses establish the link between sequence or expression level variations in the CmAPRR2 gene and pigment content in the rind and flesh of mature melon fruits. A genome-wide association study (GWAS) of young fruit rind color in a panel composed of 177 diverse melon accessions did not result in any significant association, leading to an earlier assumption that multiple genes are involved in shaping the overall phenotypic variation in this trait. Through resequencing of 25 representative accessions and allelism tests between light rind accessions, we show that multiple independent single nucleotide polymorphisms in the CmAPRR2 gene are causative of the light rind phenotype. The multi-haplotypic nature of this gene explains the lack of detection power obtained through genotyping by sequencing-based GWAS and confirms the pivotal role of this gene in shaping fruit color variation in melon. This study demonstrates the power of combining bi- and multi-allelic designs with deep sequencing, to resolve lack of power due to high haplotypic diversity and low allele frequencies. Due to its central role and broad effect on pigment accumulation in fruits, the APRR2 gene is an attractive target for carotenoid bio-fortification of cucurbit crops.

Increased Production Of Breast Milk With The Papaya Fruit Consumption

The low scope of Exclusive breastfeeding can cause nutritional problems in infants. Efforts to overcome them, among others, by increasing milk production. Papaya as one fruit containing Laktagogum.Lactagogue is a drug that can increase or facilitate the expenditure of milk. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of young papaya fruit consumption on milk production in breastfeeding mothers. The research method used is Experimental Design using One group pre-test post-test method. The population in the study were nursing mothers whose babies were still alive and aged 7-28 days with nonrandom technique (purposive sampling) obtained a sample of 14 people. Based on research result of the average of milk production volume before given treatment 16,79, deviation standard 7,277 and after consumption of papaya fruit treatment average is 26,07, deviation standard 7,385. It can be concluded the result of Paired TTest statistic test obtained p-value = 0,000 (0,000 <0,05) this shows the effect of giving young papaya fruit in the form of clear vegetable to increase milk production. With the results of the study is expected to consume young papaya fruit can be one food source that can increase milk production.

Seasonal Root, Shoot, and Fruit Growth Patterns in Kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa a. Chev.) in Central Chile

A study was conducted in kiwifruit vines (Actinidia deliciosa A. Chev.) in three different locations in central Chile to characterize the seasonal fine root growth in relation to shoot and fruit development as well as accumulated degree days (ADD). Growth of young roots, shoots, and fruits were studied at weekly intervals over an entire growing season. Root growth (young root lengths) was assessed using rhizotrons. White roots, shoots, and fruits growth curves were plotted against time over the studied period. Root growth was compared with shoots, fruit growth, and ADD during the same period and the relationship between ADD and shoots and fruits growth was evaluated. Elongation began in late November, after the beginning of shoots and fruits growth, and presented a bimodal growth pattern with the first peak between the end of spring and the beginning of summer and a second peak between the end of summer and the beginning of fall. The onset of shoot growth occurred on almost 70 days earlier than fruit and root growth with 46 to 62 ADD. Flowering occurred 56 to 58 days after bud burst (DABB) and at 210 to 231 ADD. Growth pattern reflected the competition within the vine for available assimilates, with the strongest sink being initially the developing shoots and subsequently the fruits. Logistic functions, which accounted for 89 to 93% of the variance in the three sites, were fitted to the response of shoot and fruit growth as a function of ADD.

Detection of cracked shell in intact aromatic young coconut using near infrared spectroscopy and acoustic response methods

The objective of this study was to investigate the application of near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) and acoustic response to detect cracking in aromatic young Thai coconuts. A sample of 202 aromatic young coconut fruits (106 normal and 96 cracked fruits) was harvested from Samutsakorn and Ratchaburi provinces in Thailand. The samples were scanned in reflectance mode using Fourier-transformed NIRS in the range 11,100–3996 cm−1 (900–2500 nm) and also measured for an acoustic response. Classification models were developed using partial least squares discrimination analysis. The accuracy of discrimination between normal coconuts and cracked coconuts with the acoustic response model was 85.07%. The best accuracy of discrimination was 94.03% based on absorbance spectra. NIRS offered a non-destructive means to detect the cracked shell of coconut fruit still attached to the bunch.

A taxonomic revision of the genus Glaucium (Papaveraceae) in Iran

Abstract A taxonomic revision of the genus Glaucium (Papaveraceae) in Iran is presented. It reveals the presence of 10 species including 4 subspecies and 14 varieties. Two new taxa are described: G. yazdianum and G. vitellinum var. pilosum. G. yazdianum is related to G. calycinum in general, but is differentiated by shape and cellular structure of trichomes on young fruits and sepals, the shape of filaments and stem leaves and finally the length of siliquae and buds. Pollen and leaf epidermis morphology of these two species are compared, keeping this criterion in mind. G. pulchrum, G. elegantissimum and G. golestanicum are treated here as synonyms of G. oxylobum. An identification key to the genus Glaucium in Iran and for each taxon a morphological description and notes on their distribution and habitats are presented.

Characterization of the Rosa roxburghii Tratt transcriptome and analysis of MYB genes.

Rosa roxburghii Tratt (Rosaceae) has a fruit that is flavorful, economically valuable, and highly nutritious, providing numerous health benefits. Myeloblastosis (MYB) proteins play key roles in the development and fruit quality of R. roxburghii. However, there is little available genomic and transcriptomic information for R. roxburghii. Here, a normalized cDNA library was constructed from five tissues, including the stem, leaf, flower, young fruit, and mature fruit, using the Illumina HiSeq 3000 platform. De novo assembly was performed, and 470.66 million clean reads were obtained. In total, 63,727 unigenes, with an average GC content of 42.08%, were discovered, 60,406 of which were annotated. In addition, 9,354 unigenes were assigned to Gene Ontology categories, and 20,202 unigenes were assigned to 25 Eukaryotic Ortholog Groups. Additionally, 19,508 unigenes were classified into 140 pathways of the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes database. Based on the transcriptome, 163 unigenes associated with MYBs were detected. Among these genes, 75 genes were significantly expressed in the various tissues, including 10 R1 MYB, 42 R2R3 MYB, one R1R2R3 MYB, three R4 MYB and 19 atypical MYB-like proteins. The expression levels of the 12 MYB genes randomly selected for quantitative real-time PCR analysis corroborated the RNA sequencing results. A total of 37,545 microsatellites were detected, with an average expressed sequence tag–simple sequence repeat frequency of 0.59 (37,545/63,727). This transcriptome data improves our understanding of the role of MYB in R. roxburghii and will be valuable for identifying genes of interest.

Forced Flowering in Mandarin Trees under Phytotron Conditions.

Phytotron has been widely used to assess the effect of numerous parameters on the development of many species. However, less information is available on how to achieve fast profuse flowering in young fruit trees with this plant growth chamber. This study aimed to outline the design and performance of a fast clear methodology to force flowering in young mandarin trees (cv. Nova and cv. Clemenules) and to analyze the influence of induction intensity on inflorescence type. The combination of a short water stress period with simulated spring conditions (day 13 h, 22 °C, night 11 h, 12 °C) in the phytotron allowed flowers to be obtained only after 68-72 days from the time the experiment began. Low-temperature requirements were adequately replaced with water stress. Floral response was proportional to water stress (measured as the number of fallen leaves): the greater the induction, the larger the quantity of flowers. Floral induction intensity also influenced inflorescence type and dates for flowering. Details on artificial lighting (lumens), photoperiod, temperatures, plant size and age, induction strategy and days for each stage are provided. Obtaining flowers from fruit trees at any time, and also several times a year, can have many advantages for researchers. With the methodology proposed herein, three, or even four, flowering periods can be forced each year, and researchers should be able to decide when, and they will know, the duration of the entire process. The methodology can be useful for: flower production and in vitro pollen germination assays; experiments with pests that affect early fruit development stages; studies on fruit physiological alterations. All this can help plant breeders to shorten times to obtain male and female gametes to perform forced-crosses.

Comparative transcriptome analysis of genes involved in anthocyanin biosynthesis in the pink-white and red fruits of Chinese bayberry (Morella rubra)

Chinese bayberry (Morella rubra Sieb. and Zucc.) is an ideal fruits crop for fruits color research because of the rapid color changes that occur during ripening. Some structural genes and transcription factors involved in the anthocyanin metabolic pathway have been found in the red fruits variety of Chinese bayberry, but the mechanisms of pink-white color formation in Chinese bayberry fruits have not been reported. The red fruits of the Dongkui (DK) cultivar and the pink-white fruits of the Baidongkui (BDK) strain of Chinese bayberry were selected for transcriptome analysis. A total of 119,701 unigenes were obtained, of which 41.43% were annotated in the non-redundant (Nr) protein database. The total number of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between the breaker fruits (BDK2) and young fruits (BDK1) was 9024, with 4993 upregulated, including DFR1, DFR2, UFGT and MYB1. The total number of DEGs between the ripe fruits (BDK3) and the breaker fruits (BDK2) was 5226, of which 2592 genes were upregulated. We found enhanced expression of structural genes, such as CHS, CHI, F3H, DFR1, DFR2, F3’H, ANS, UFGT and transcription factors such as MYB1, bHLH1. The total number of DEGs between the ripe fruits of DK (DK3) and BDK (BDK3) was only 630, of which 345 genes were upregulated. We observed enhanced expression of CHS, F3H, DFR1, DFR2, F3’H (88.3%), ANS (71.5%), and UFGT (93.0%). Hierarchy cluster analysis showed that DK3 berries were closest to BDK3 berries and furthest from BDK1 berries based on gene expression. We confirmed the results of our transcriptome analysis using quantitative real-time PCR, anthocyanin content analysis, and measurement of CIRG. Together, our results showed that the BDK pink-white fruits were formed by the upregulated expression of anthocyanin biosynthetic genes and regulatory factors. However, the reduced expression of key anthocyanin biosynthetic genes at the late stage of fruits development in BDK3 fruits compared with DK3 fruits resulted in the failure to form red fruits. Our findings shed light on the regulatory mechanisms and metabolic processes during pink-white fruits ripening of Chinese bayberry.

Overexpression of a gene AhFBA from Arachis hypogaea confers salinity stress tolerance in Escherichia coli and tobacco

Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate aldolase (FBA), an essential enzyme involved in the glycolytic pathway, gluconeogenesis, and the Calvin cycle, plays significant roles in the regulation of plant growth, development, and stress responses. In this study, a novel gene, AhFBA (GenBank accession number KF470788), containing a 1077-bp open reading frame and encoding a protein of 358 amino acids, was isolated from Arachis hypogaea L. Bioinformatic analysis revealed that AhFBA belonged to class-I aldolases and preferentially localized in the cytoplasm. Real-time quantitative PCR analysis indicated that AhFBA had a higher expression in young fruits than in leaves and stems, and NaCl could trigger the highest expression of AhFBA in roots and leaves after 3-h and 6-h treatments. The salinity tolerance and survival of Escherichia coli transformed with AhFBA were notably enhanced compared with the control. Transgenic tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) overexpressing the AhFBA gene exhibited a lower hydrogen peroxide content, electrolyte leakage, and malondialdehyde content and a higher photosynthetic efficiency, net photosynthetic rate, relative water content, and sucrose and proline content compared with control plants. Taken together, the results demonstrate that AhFBA functioned as a positive factor enhancing the tolerance of E. coli and N. tabacum to salinity stress, possibly by maintaining the osmotic balance and scavenging hydrogen peroxide.

GLABROUS1 from Rosa roxburghii Tratt regulates trichome formation by interacting with the GL3/EGL3 protein

GLABROUS1 is an R2R3 MYB homolog that is essential for the initiation of trichome development. In this study, we used RACE to clone a full-length cDNA from Rosa roxburghii Tratt, termed RrGL1, which was 1013 bp, including an open reading frame of 792 bp that encoded 263 amino acids. In situ hybridization, corresponding with qRT-PCR results, revealed that RrGL1 transcripts were mainly expressed in petiole, leaf, and stem. RrGL1 expression levels at various fruit developmental stages in R. roxburghii were also evaluated. RrGL1 was highly expressed in young fruit, and the expression level decreased with fruit maturation. The overexpression of RrGL1 was able to functionally complemented the Arabidopsis thaliana gl1−/− mutant in trichome formation. RrGL1 was located in the cell nucleus with analysis of subcellular localization and physically interacted with A. thaliana GL3/EGL3 in the yeast two-hybrid assay, implying that RrGL1 might exert functions by forming a MYB-basic helix-loop-helix complex in trichome initiation. The formation of prickles in R. roxburghii is similar to that of Arabidopsis trichome.These results provided a foundation for further research on the molecular mechanisms underlying the formation and development of prickles that could assist and cultivate in the genetic engineering of prickle-free fruits.

Characterization and Quantification of Polyphenols and Triterpenoids in Thinned Young Fruits of Ten Pear Varieties by UPLC-Q TRAP-MS/MS.

Large quantities of thinned young pears, a natural source of bioactive compounds, are abandoned as agricultural by-products in many orchards. Hence, ten thinned young pear varieties were systematically investigated in terms of their chemical composition and antioxidant potential. Through ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q TRAP-MS/MS), 102 polyphenols and 16 triterpenoids were identified and individually quantified within a short time using multiple reaction monitoring (MRM). Subsequently, the antioxidant capacities of these pears were determined with DPPH assays, and the correlation between total antioxidant activity and each component was analyzed. The results indicated that the bioactive compound content and antioxidant capacity in thinned pears were considerably high. Regarding chemical composition, chlorogenic acid, quinic acid and arbutin were the primary polyphenols and ursolic acid was the predominant triterpenoid, whereas 27 polyphenolic compounds, especially chlorogenic acid and most of the flavan-3-ols, were the main antioxidants in young pears. These findings should provide a scientific basis for the further use of pear fruit by-products.

Buah Merah (Pandanus conoideus Lamk) Bioresources Pegunungan Tengah Papua: Keanekaragaman dan Upaya Konservasinya

ABSTRACT The red fruit (Pandanus conoideus Lamk) is one of the local bioresources on the Central Highlands Region of Papua. Exploration to reveal the red fruit diversity in this region had been carried out in 2016 and 2017 which covers Kurima, Kurulu, Siepkosi, Wesaput and Kaninmbaga / Bokondini areas. The method used in exploration were interview the local residents, observations of plant morphology, soil, micro-climate, surrounding species, and collection of propagation material. The observed red fruit morphology includes; stem height and diameter, leaf length and width, and number of roots. Observation of fruit development was carried out at the Royal Biological Garden in Wamena (KRBW). The results of the exploration obtained 23 red fruit cultivars in the Central Highlands region of Papua. All cultivars grow in moist environments; the texture of the soil is clay mixed with sand and loam. The development of fruit from young fruit into ripe fruit takes 3-4 months which is divided into 3 stages. Ex-situ red fruit conservation efforts have been carried out at the Royal Biological Garden in Wamena (KRBW). Until now, 141 numbers of red fruits have been conserved in KRBW. The community has also cultivated a number of red fruit cultivars in their yard and garden such as Bergum, Maler, Wona and Wesi cultivars as in situ conservation. The four cultivars are very popular because the fruit is large and the oil content is more than other cultivars. Keywords: Diversity, Red Fruit, Conservation, Royal Biological Garden in Wamena, Central Highlands Region of Papua

Ethnobotanical Study of Edible Wild Plants in Libya

Abstract This study was designed to document the use and conservation of edible wild plants in Libya. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions. A total of 145 edible wild plant species were identified; of these, herbs represented the majority with 119 species. Regarding the parts used, the most consumed parts were leaves (in 64 species), followed by young shoots (in 39 species), fruits (in 35 species), seeds (in 16 species), flowers and roots (in 14 species each), and 8 species were consumed as a whole plant. Studies on the mode of consumption revealed a total of 12 ways of consumption, of which the majority were consumed raw (90 species), followed by consumption after cooking (56 species) and as a salad (41 species).