Triticale Yield Research Articles

Productivity and quality of grains of tritikale varieties at various quantities of mineral nutrition

This paper presents the influence of varieties and different doses of applied nitrogen on grain yield and protein content of triticale. The experiment was set in the period from 2010 to 2012 in the north of Montenegro, in the vicinity of Bijelo Polje. The research included 5 varieties of winter triticale (Odyssey, Kg-20, Triumph, Rtanj and Tango) originating from different breeding houses and the following varieties of fertilization: control (without fertilization), only nitrogen in the amount of 60 kg ha-1 and nitrogen in the amount of 60 and 90 kg ha-1 in combination with the same amount of phosphorus and potassium (80 kg ha-1). The results of the study showed that the lowest average grain yield was obtained in the non-fertilizing variant - control. The use of fertilizers in all tested varieties has led to a very significant increase in yield in all variants compared to control. The Kg-20 variety had the lowest average yield, and the Tango variety had the highest. The highest average protein content was achieved in the fertilizer variant where only nitrogen was used in the amount of 60 kg ha-1. Among the researched varieties, the Triumph variety had the highest protein content in the grains. The data on the achieved yields and the content of protein in grains, depending on the variety and the used doses of fertilizer, indicate the characteristics of individual varieties and can serve as a criterion for the selection of the most suitable variety for certain agroecological conditions. This is particularly important for cattle-oriented farms, where the main priority is to ensure a sufficient amount of quality food.

Correlations at the interspecific and intraspecific hybrids of winter triticale

The main abiotic factor affecting the yield of triticale is the  GTK for the vegetation period (r = 0.93 ± ** 0.0193). Positive influence is ensured by precipitation before sowing (r = 0,37 ... 0,71 **). Partial death of plants during the sowing period (r = -0.37 ± 0.1233) and at the beginning of vegetation (r = -0.51 ± * 0.1057) occurs from excess moisture during these periods. During the growing season, high temperatures (r = -0.39 ... -0.71 **) and excess moisture (r = -0.32 ... -0.63 *) reduce yields. Presence in samples of telocentric chromosomes of wheat and rye, splitting testify to the continuing formative process. In the third generation, the process of splitting hybrids into morphotypes continues. There are hybrid plants with pyramidal and fusiform spike, awned and semi-awned, high and low. Compared with first-generation hybrids, the number of significant relationships in second-and third-generation hybrids is much higher. The explanation for this is that F2 and F3 hybrids have a wider range of genotypic and phenotypic variability. Splitting in F2 and subsequent generations is extremely diverse, since the parent varieties differed among themselves for a very large number of characters. The process of stabilization of F3 hybrids is not complete, in addition to the recombination of genes, the process of stabilizing the level of ploidy has not been completed. The obtained hybrid material is of interest as a theoretical one - for further genetic research, as well as practical - for selective use. Increasing the sensitivity of the hybrid to favorable and unfavorable conditions shows an increase in the phenotypic plasticity expressed by the bi regression coefficient. The reason of such as lies in the genetic determination of the norm of reaction, the phenotypic manifestation of which depends on the action of environment factors and their tension. The purpose of this study was to study the correlation relationships of hybrids F1, F2 and F3 obtained in different ways, plasticity and stability. Identify the likelihood of cytogenetic balanced forms in F3 and the ability to conduct selections in this generation.

Comparative response of spring and winter triticale productivity and bioethanol yield to fertilisation intensity

ABSTRACTGrains of triticale are one of the feedstocks suitable for bioethanol production because they are characterised by high starch and low protein contents. In the present study, spring and winter triticale were comparatively studied to evaluate the influence of N fertilisation intensity on the productivity and bioethanol yield, as well as to assess the relationship between the meteorological factors and ethanol yield. Six treatments of N – 0, 60, 90, 120, 150, and 180 kg ha−1 were compared in spring triticale and in winter triticale crops. The analysis of variance showed that nitrogen level (factor A), year (factor B) and their interaction (A × B) significantly (P ≤ .01) influenced grain yield, starch yield and bioethanol yield of both spring and winter triticale. Fertilisation was the main factor explaining 47.6% and 41.0% of the total variability of bioethanol yield of spring and winter triticale, respectively. Nitrogen fertiliser rates 120–180 kg ha−1 resulted in maximum bioethanol yield of spring triticale (2417–2480 l ha−1) and winter triticale (4311–4420 l ha−1). Bioethanol conversion efficiency of nitrogen-fertilised spring and winter triticale was similar 492 l t−1 and 508 l −1, respectively. Meteorological factors had a greater impact on grain productivity and bioethanol yield for winter triticale than for spring triticale. Both seasonal types of triticale could be good feedstocks for bioethanol production in the areas with congenial weather conditions for their cultivation.

Effect of weather conditions on spring triticale yield and content of macroelements in grain

Effect of weather conditions on spring triticale yield and content of macroelements in grain

Diverse Grain‐Filling Dynamics Affect Harvest Management of Forage Barley and Triticale Cultivars

Core Ideas Decision‐making criteria are needed to optimize silage production in barley and triticale.The critical factors, yield, forage quality, and dry matter interact in the grain‐filling period.Optimization of factors is required and the indicator for harvest may differ between species.Comparison on a growing degree day scale during grain filling provided an assessment of dynamics.Triticale needed more degree days than barley to optimize yield and dry matter shown by dough stage. Harvest time for small‐grain forage is impacted by changes in yield, dry matter concentration (DMC) and forage quality during grain‐filling. Little information exists for hulless and two‐rowed barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) and triticale (X Triticosecale Wittmack) grown in Alberta. Two barley and two triticale cultivars were grown at three planting dates and two locations over 2 yr at Lacombe, AB, Canada. Forage was harvested five times after boot stage at 7‐ and 10‐d intervals for barley and triticale, respectively. Relationships were developed by regressing variables with growing degree days (GDD) after the boot stage for triticale cultivars, combined, and each barley cultivar (‘Falcon’ and ‘Gadsby’). Comparisons were made at GDD positions. Triticale out‐yielded and dried slower than barley and had higher DMC for 560 GDD after the boot stage; Gadsby out‐yielded Falcon. The soft dough stage (DS 85) indicated optimum yield, 93% of relative dry matter yield (RDMY) at less than 400 g kg−1 DMC for barley and triticale, but occurred at 400 and 500 GDD after the boot stage, respectively. Triticale had lower in vitro true digestibility (IVTD) and higher fiber levels than barley at boot stage; but triticale IVTD decreased slower than barley and Falcon declined faster than Gadsby. Starch accumulated more rapidly for Gadsby than Falcon, while triticale increased slowly initially, then rapidly later in the grain filling period. Delaying harvest by 100 GDD for triticale compared to barley (both at DS 85) resulted in the higher triticale yield, while allowing more starch to accumulate.

Integrated bioethanol production from triticale grain and lignocellulosic straw in Western Canada

Triticale is an emerging bioenergy crop in Canada, with potential as a feedstock for the production of ethanol and co-products from both its grain and straw. This study evaluates the commercial potential of introducing triticale as an industrial feedstock crop in the Brown agroecological soil zone of the Canadian Prairies, a semi-arid area which accounts for the highest share of underutilized summerfallow in the region. The study approach includes determination of location parameters (potential triticale land area, feedstock collection radius, and transportation distance), on-farm triticale yield, on-farm production cost, and feedstock chemical composition. Subsequently, SuperPro® Designer was used to develop and simulate two processes using both grain and straw: a) integrated process that ferments both pentose and hexose (Process I); b) single process involving fermentation of hexose sugars only, while pentose sugar is diverted for biogas production and then combined with lignin for power generation (Process II). Triticale on-farm yield is analyzed for the range 5.1–6.8 t ha−1 (which corresponds to 74–126 thousand ha of triticale area). Triticale on-farm production cost is $473 ha−1 with corresponding on-farm profit of $570–$1150 ha−1 from grain and straw sale. The integrated grain and straw processing model is developed and simulated for a 200–550 million L annum−1 ethanol biorefinery, with corresponding total capital investment cost of $140–$240 million. Fermenting both grain and straw and using hydrothermal pretreatment for straw resulted a lower equipment purchase cost per litre of ethanol ($0.12–$0.14 L−1) compared with cellulosic ethanol production using other pretreatment methods ($0.60–$1.24 L−1). The process involving fermentation of both pentose and hexose (Process I) is more profitable compared with a hexose-only process (Process II). Ethanol selling price, plant capacity, and feedstock cost all have high impact on net present value. All plants generate negative net present value at ethanol prices of $0.60 L−1 or less, while a price of at least $0.80 L−1 is required for plants with capacity higher than 250 million L to generate positive net present value. This study provides a basis for further articulation of Canada’s triticale biorefinery concept beyond the near-term goal of producing ethanol, namely, sustainable production of a wide array of bioproducts (bioenergy, biofuels, biomaterials, biochemicals, and biologics) to enhance the profitability of the triticale biorefinery and contribute to Canada’s environmental goals for a bio-based economy.

Fertilizer Nitrogen Use by Spring Triticale and Spring Wheat on Dark-Chestnut Soil of the Dry Steppe Zone of Kazakhstan

In an experiment with the use of a stable isotope of nitrogen 15N, the impact of fertilizers on grain yield of spring wheat and spring triticale on the dark chestnut soil in the dry steppe zone of Northern Kazakhstan was estimated. The maximum yield of spring wheat grain was obtained when introducing N60 before sowing and that of spring triticale (2.2 times higher) when introducing N60 in equal parts before sowing and during tillering. The effect of nitrogen fertilizer on yield of both the crops is more efficient compared to phosphate fertilizers. Both the crops used 30% of the introduced doses of fertilizer nitrogen for yield formation; 32% was fixed in the soil under spring wheat, 34% under spring triticale, and gaseous losses of nitrogen fertilizer were 38% and 36%, respectively. The maximum use of nitrogen fertilizer on yield formation (41–42%) is typical of both the crops when introducing N30 before sowing both against the background with and without phosphorus. As a result of better nitrogen use by plants, its gaseous losses fell to 15–26%. It is noted that, both in case of P0 and P60, levels of fertilizer nitrogen use decreased almost twofold, from 41–42 to 23–28%, when the nitrogen fertilizer dose was doubled. Fractional introduction of N60 by equal parts before sowing and during tillering hardly affected the amount of nitrogen fertilizer used by plants of both the crops for yield formation. The use of N30 during tillering compared to a similar dose before sowing reduced the factor of fertilizer use by plants.

Влияние азотных удобрений на продуктивность ярового тритикале в сухостепной зоне Казахстана

Provision of stable grain production ensures food security for any state. Wheat is the main grain crop in Kazakhstan. But harsh climate does not allow to get high yields on the regular. Therefore, it is necessary to find grain reserves by introducing other grain crops. Triticale has been focused on here recently though it is not widely spread, and its cultivation technology, including the use of fertilizers, almost has not been studied yet. The aim of the research is to study the effect of nitrogen fertilizers on the yield and grain quality of spring triticale on dark chestnut soils of the Akmola region of Kazakhstan. The object of the research is spring triticale of Amigo variety. In 2015-2017 the rates and time of nitrogen application were studied. The climatic conditions during the years of research differed both by temperature range and the amount of rainfall during the vegetation period. On average for three years the highest yield (1.98 t/ha) was obtained on P60 background in variants: N60 before sowing; N30 before sowing in complex with N30 during the tillering phase. With nitrogen application on P60 background the yield increase was 0.55-0.7 t/ha, the protein content in triticale grain raised from 7.6 to 9.9-10.7%. Increase in fertilizer rates led to rise in grain yields, but payback of 1 kg of acting matter of fertilizer in grain has reduced. The greatest return of 1 kg of the acting matter was obtained by applying N30 during the tillering phase on phosphorus-free background -10.2-10.4 kg of grain. To increase the yield and quality of spring triticale the variant with nitrogen application at rate N60 both by single and dosing application on P60 background is recommended.

Effect of Triticale Milling Coarseness on Biogas Production

AbstractThe objective of this study was to investigate the digestibility of triticale grain kernels in anaerobic digestion (AD) systems as compared with coarse triticale. Although the biogas yield of grain kernels in fermentation batch tests was 11 % lower than the biogas yield of coarse triticale after 39 days fermentation time, the parallel semi‐continuous fermentations showed the adaptability of the system to the grain kernels AD. The results are important for the prevention of foaming when grain is used as a substrate in AD plants.

The impact of the background of mineral nutrition the yield of spring triticale under different primary tillage

The impact of the background of mineral nutrition the yield of spring triticale under different primary tillage

Spatial variability of soil properties and cereal yield in a cultivated field on sandy soil

Sandy soils are used in agriculture in different regions of the world. In Poland soils derived from sands occupy about 50% of agricultural area. Productivity of the soils depend on the soil properties that vary in the scale of field. This study aimed at determining and mapping the within-field variation of soil physical and chemical properties and grain yield of oats, rye, oats and triticale in 2001, 2002, 2003, 2015, respectively. The experiment was set up in a field (200×50m) on sandy soil in Trzebieszów (region Podlasie, Poland). The soil measurements included sand, silt, clay, and organic carbon (SOC) contents, cation exchange capacity (CEC), pH in the topsoil (0–10cm) and subsoil (30–40cm) layers in 2001, and water content and bulk density in the topsoil layer in spring and summer 2002–2003. The yields of oats were assessed in 2001 and 2003 and those of rye and triticale in 2002 and 2015, respectively. The soil properties and cereal yields were determined at 33–55 points in a grid evenly covering the whole field area. The results were analyzed using classic statistics and geostatistics by constructing semivariograms and 2D mapping by Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW). The cereal grain yields were significantly positively correlated with the topsoil water content (SWC) (r=0.295–0.711), clay content (r=0.081–0.174), and SOC in the subsoil (r=0.208–0.271) and CEC in both layers (r=0.123–0.298) and negatively correlated with bulk density (BD) (r=–0.065 to −0.279). The spatial dependence determined by the “nugget-to-sill” ratio was moderate or weak for the silt and clay content, CEC, and pH (29–79%) and strong for SOC, BD, SWC, and crop yield (0.2–13.2%). The effective range of the spatial dependence for all studied quantities varied from 9.9 to 120m. The cereal yields were positively and significantly correlated between all study years (r=0.141–0.734), which indicates inter-annual similarity in their spatial distribution. The 2D maps based on the IDW allowed assessing how gradual or sharp the changes in the studied quantities from one place to another are. Similar spatial patterns of the SWC, SOC and CEC, and crop yields were observed. This is of importance in precise and sustainable field management aimed at increasing and aligning spatial crop productivity of the studied low-productivity sandy soils that will have to be used in crop production due to the current shortage of land resources and food supplies on a global scale.

The influence of climatic conditions changes on grain yield in Winter Triticale (X Triticosecale Wittm.)

The aim of this paper is making out the influence of climatic changes on grain yield of winter triticale in relation with applied fertilizer. The influence of environmental conditions on growing and development of triticale plants depends of grow stages and their duration. During five experimental years (2010-2015) the climatic conditions were different year to year, with an accentuated heating trend, influencing plant phenology, accelerating or slowing down some important processes disturbing grain yield formation. The influence of drought is more accentuated by heating stress and prolonging of these conditions during the main phenological processes have a negative influence on plant growth or development with effect on the grain yield formation process.

Evaluation of defoliation on leaf water relations, chlorophyll content, and grain yield of triticale (x triticosecale wittmack) genotypes under water stress

Evaluation of defoliation on leaf water relations, chlorophyll content, and grain yield of triticale (x triticosecale wittmack) genotypes under water stress

Кавитация в технологии производства бионутриентов

Статья посвящена новому подходу к производству бионутриентов, основанному на применении эффекта кавитации. Показано, что дальнейшее применение химических препаратов представляет большую опасность для населения страны, поэтому интенсификация сельского хозяйства должна сопровождаться биологизацией земледелия. Работа ведется по созданию линейки комплексных препаратов преимущественно органоминерального синтеза и биологического происхождения (бионутриентов), основанная на физических методах активизации известных и давно применяемых в сельскохозяйственной практике продуктов метаболизма живых организмов (животные–микроорганизмы–кольчатые черви). Такие бионутриенты за счет активизации обменных процессов в растениях способствуют повышению иммунного статуса растений и улучшению обменных процессов, тем самым снижая потребность в химических пестицидах и минеральных удобрениях. Предложен вариант технологии и технологической линии, позволяющей на основе применения кавитации повысить эффективность известных бионутриентов — гуминовых удобрений. Для практической реализации возможностей бионутриентов разработана технология и проект предприятия для их производства в промышленных объемах. Применение полученного с кавитацией бионутриента на полях агрокомплекса ЗАО «БИО-М» позволило снизить затраты на пестициды на 12 % при одновременном повышении урожайности: тритикале — на 23,7 %, рапса — на 18,3 % по сравнению с контролем.

Replacing fallow with forage triticale in a dryland wheat-corn-fallow rotation may increase profitability

A common dryland rotational cropping system in the semi-arid central Great Plains of the USA is wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)-corn (Zea mays L.)-fallow (WCF). However, the 12-month fallow period following corn production has been shown to be relatively inefficient in storing precipitation during the summer months and in some years could leave the soil vulnerable to wind erosion. The objective of this experiment was to determine the effect on system productivity when the fallow period in a WCF rotation was replaced with spring-planted forage triticale (X Triticosecale rimpaui Wittm.). The 3-yr study was conducted at Akron, CO and Sidney, NE under both dryland and very limited irrigation conditions (to approximate average precipitation during the growing season). Growing season precipitation during the course of the study was above-average in five of the six site-years. Over a wide range of wheat water use (361–591mm) wheat yields ranged from 1696kgha−1 to 5527kgha−1. Wheat yields averaged 17% lower when triticale (T) replaced fallow, primarily because of reductions in water content at wheat planting. Corn yields were unaffected by triticale replacing fallow and ranged from 3159kgha−1 to 8085kgha−1. Triticale yields ranged from 2967kgha−1 to 6724kgha−1. System productivity as quantified by system net returns was greater for WCT than for WCF when growing season precipitation was above-average resulting in triticale production over 6000kgha−1, but even in drier years net income was not reduced when the fallow phase was replaced with triticale production. A WCT rotation can be recommended over WCF provided that growing season precipitation is not far below average and there is an available market for the triticale forage produced.Mention of trade names or commercial products in this publication is solely for the purpose of providing specific information and does not imply recommendation or endorsement by the U.S. Department of Agriculture.The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of race, color, national origin, age, disability, and where applicable, sex, marital status, familial status, parental status, religion, sexual orientation, genetic information, political beliefs, reprisal, or because all or part of an individual's income is derived from any public assistance program. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities who require alternative means for communication of program information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA's TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice and TDD). To file a complaint of discrimination, write to USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, 1400 Independence Avenue, S.W., Washington, D.C. 20250-9410, or call (800) 795-3272 (voice) or (202) 720-6382 (TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer.

Biomass yield and feeding value of rye, triticale, and wheat straw produced under a dual-purpose management system.

Dual-purpose management of winter cereals for grazing and grain production provides highly nutritive forage for ruminants in the spring and may positively affect straw feeding value. A 2-yr study investigated the effect of spring defoliation of triticale, wheat, and rye at the tillering and stem elongation stages on total biomass, grain yields, and straw quality. Furthermore, straws of spring-defoliated and undefoliated (control) cereal crops were evaluated for nutritional value and voluntary intake as a means of assessing the efficiency of dual-purpose management systems from the winter feeding context as well. The feeding study consisted of 9 total mixed rations (TMR), each containing 35% triticale, rye, or wheat straw obtained under 3 spring-defoliation regimens. The TMR were individually fed to fifty-four 1-yr-old Anatolian Merino ewes for 28 d. Defoliation of the crops at tillering did not affect the total biomass production or grain yields. However, biomass and grain yields were reduced ( < 0.01) by 55 and 52%, respectively, in crops defoliated at stem elongation. Straw of spring-defoliated cereals had less NDF and ADF concentrations ( < 0.01) but greater CP ( < 0.01), nonfiber carbohydrates ( < 0.01), and ME concentrations ( < 0.01) compared with straw from undefoliated crops. The increase in the nutritive value of straw led to greater nutrient digestion ( < 0.01) and intake of DM and OM of ewes ( < 0.01). However, sheep live weight gain did not differ among treatments ( > 0.77). This study indicated that straw feeding value and digestibility can be increased through spring defoliation.

Effect of fertilizer dose on the performance of spring cereals

In country like Pakistan where population is growing at an alarming rate, food shortage is the top challenge for researchers. To contribute to this effort, field trials entitled “Effect of fertilizer dose on the performance of spring cereals” were conducted at Cereal Crops Research Institute Pirsabak Nowshehra, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan during 2010-2011. The experiment was laid out in RCB design with split plot arrangement replicated three times, with plot size 5X1.8m, having 6 rows 30cm apart. Fertilizer doses were allotted to main while cereal species were allotted to subplots. Fertilizer dose, cereal species and their interaction had significantly affected cereal performance. Application of 60:30:30 and 120:60:60 (N:P:K kg ha -1 ) significantly affected plant height and phenology of cereals than no NPK. Application of 60:30:30 and 120:60:60 produced 55% and 62% more grain yield respectively than no NPK. Wheat, triticale and oat phenology was significantly delayed, oat and triticale produced taller plants than wheat and barley. Triticale yield was significantly higher than barley, wheat and oat. In case of interactions triticale with 120:60:60 NPK took more days to heading (131) and physiological maturity (168), while barley took less days to heading (109) and physiological maturity with no NPK. Significantly taller plants were produced by oat (129 cm) at 120:60:60 while barley produced dwarf plants (73cm) with no NPK. In case of grain yield, triticale produced more yield (5275 kg ha -1 ) with 60:30:30 while oat gave lowest yield (2433 kg ha -1 ) with no NPK. It is concluded that triticale and barley performed well on less fertile soil than wheat and oat. For optimum production, 60:30:30 and 120:60:60 (N: P: K kg ha -1 ) are recommended for barley/triticale and wheat/oat respectively, in conditions similar to

Triticale out-performs wheat on range of UK soils with a similar nitrogen requirement

SUMMARYTriticale has a reputation for performing well on poor soils, under drought and with reduced inputs, but there has been little investigation of its performance on the better yielding soils dominated by wheat production. The present paper reports 16 field experiments comparing wheat and triticale yield responses to nitrogen (N) fertilizer on high-yielding soils in the UK in harvest years 2009–2014. Each experiment included at least two wheat and at least two triticale varieties, grown at five or six N fertilizer rates from 0 to at least 260 kg N/ha. Linear plus exponential curves were fitted to describe the yield response to N and to calculate economically optimal N rates. Normal type curves with depletion were used to describe protein responses to N. Whole crop samples from selected treatments were taken prior to harvest to measure crop biomass, harvest index, crop N content and yield components. At commercial N rates, mean triticale yield was higher than the mean wheat yield at 13 out of 16 sites; the mean yield advantage of triticale was 0·53 t/ha in the first cereal position and 1·26 t/ha in the second cereal position. Optimal N requirement varied with variety at ten of the 16 sites, but there was no consistent difference between the optimal N rates of wheat and triticale. Triticale grain had lower protein content and lower specific weight than wheat grain. Triticale typically showed higher biomass and straw yields, lower harvest index and higher total N uptake than wheat. Consequently, triticale had higher N uptake efficiency and higher N use efficiency. Based on this study, current N fertilizer recommendations for triticale in the UK are too low, as are national statistics and expectations of triticale yields. The implications of these findings for arable cropping and cereals markets in the UK and Northern Europe are discussed, and the changes which would need to occur to allow triticale to fulfil a role in achieving sustainable intensification are explored.

Combining carbon-13 and oxygen-18 to unravel triticale grain yield and physiological response to water stress

Water availability in semi-arid regions is increasingly becoming threatened by erratic rains and frequent droughts leading to over-reliance on irrigation to meet food demand. Improving crop water use efficiency (WUE) has become a priority but direct measurements remain a challenge. There is therefore a need to identify reliable proxies and screening traits for WUE. Carbon isotope discrimination (Δ13C) offers potential as a proxy for WUE, but its application is hindered by environmental factors and thus varies greatly among different studies. A two-year study was carried out with four moisture levels, ranging from well-watered (430–450mm) to severe stress (SS) (220–250mm), combined with four commercial triticale genotypes grown under field conditions in a hot, arid, steppe climate of Limpopo in South Africa. The study tested the use of Δ13C as a proxy of intrinsic WUE and grain yield of triticale. Second, δ13C and δ18O in combination with measured gas exchanges were used to test the functionality of the dual isotope model to interpret causes of variation in carbon isotope composition. Third, grain filling carbon assimilate sources were inferred from measured flag leaf and grain Δ13C.The results showed that moisture level significantly influenced grain yield, intrinsic WUE and Δ13C in triticale. Well-watered conditions increased grain yield, which ranged from 3.5 to 0.8tha−1 and 4.9–1.8tha−1 in 2013 and 2014 respectively. Δ13C was also high under well-watered conditions and decreased with decreasing moisture level while WUEintrinsic increased with decreasing moisture level. The relationship between Δ13C and grain yield was positive (P<0.01), but only significant under water stressed conditions, indicating dependence of the relationship on moisture level. The relationship between Δ13C and WUEintrinsic did not depend on the moisture level but showed a negative relationship when data for all moisture levels was combined. δ13C showed a negative relationship with photosynthetic rate (A), while the relationship between stomatal conductance (gs) and δ18O varied with season. Hence, the dual isotope model could only predict that variation observed in Δ13C and thus intrinsic water use efficiency was due to a concomitant decrease in both A and gs when transpiration was not limited by evaporative demand. Flag leaf Δ13C measured under SS at GS71 in the 2014 growing season, was significantly higher (2.2–3.6‰) than grain Δ13C, also measured under SS, suggesting minimal contribution of flag leaf photosynthesis to grain filling. No genotypic differences were observed in Δ13C, grain yield and WUEintrinsic, indicating a probable lack of diversity in the studied genotypes.The results of this study show that carbon isotope discrimination could be useful as a predictor of triticale grain yield in drought prone areas. Δ13C also offers potential as a proxy for WUEintrinsic and breeding for lower Δ13C values could result in varieties with higher WUEintrinsic in triticale. Flag leaf photosynthesis and pre-anthesis assimilates contribute much less carbon to grain filling under water stress than previously thought. Lastly, our results show that the dual isotope model is operational, but is not all encompassing but depends on evaporative demand.

Effect of Zinc and Bio Fertilizers on Antioxidant Enzymes Activity, Chlorophyll Content, Soluble Sugars and Proline in Triticale Under Salinity Condition

In order to study the effects of bio fertilizers and zinc fertilizer on antioxidant enzymes activity, chlorophyll content, soluble sugars and proline in triticale under salinity condition, a factorial experiment was conducted based on randomized complete block design with three replications under greenhouse condition. Experiment factors were included salinity in four levels [no-salt (control or S0), salinity 20 (S1), 40 (S2) and 60 (S3) mM NaCl) equivalent of 1.85, 3.7 and 5.55 dS m−1 respectively], four bio fertilizers levels (no bio fertilizer (F0), application of mycorrhiza (F1), PGPR (F2), both application PGPR and mycorrhiza (F3) and three nano zinc oxide levels (without nano zinc oxide as control (Zn0), application of 0.4 (Zn1) and 0.8 (Zn2) g lit-1). Results showed that salinity severe stress (60 mM) decreased chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, total chlorophyll, carotenoid and grain yield of triticale, whereas soluble sugars and proline content, the activities of Catalase (CAT), Peroxidase (POD) Polyphenol Oxidase (PPO) enzymes increased. Results showed that both application of bio fertilizer and 0.8 g lit-1 nano zinc oxide (F3Zn2) increased about 39% from grain yield in comparison with F0Zn0 under the highest salinity level. Based on the results, it was concluded that bio fertilizers and nano zinc oxide application can be recommended for profitable triticale production under salinity condition.