XIII Century Research Articles

History of the Gurid state in Muslim sources XII - XIII centuries

The article is devoted to the analysis of the Muslim sources of the XII-XIII centuries, containing information on the history of the Gurid state in the pre-Mongol period. After the death of the Seljuk Sultan Sanjar in 1157, various regional leaders will lay claim to the lands that were part of his state, as a result of the struggle between which Khorasan and Mawerannahr, as well as adjacent regions, will become part of the Khorezm state. One of the most serious opponents of Khorezm during this period will be the Gurid state, whose rulers will finally gain independence from the Seljukids and will seriously claim dominance in Khorasan. In many ways, it was the victory over this rival that ensured the rulers of Khorezm a victory in the regional struggle and the opportunity to annex to their own state not only the above-mentioned regions, but also the lands of modern Afghanistan. Medieval historiography of the history of the Gurid state was not a subject of special study as a whole: researchers preferred to focus their attention on the analysis of individual monuments or the most informative historical works from their point of view. In the same article, we will try to outline the boundaries of the corpus of monuments of the 12th - 13th centuries, containing information about this state and its rulers, indicate the features of this information, and also indicate possible connections between this kind of Muslim writings.

Legislative regulation of debt relations between Jews and Christians in Castile in the middle of the XIII century

Legislative regulation of debt relations between Jews and Christians in Castile in the middle of the XIII century

Ideology of the Mongol World Domination in “The Collection of Chronicles” by Rashid al-Din

The article presents the results obtained in the course of work on identifying plots in medieval written sources that demonstrate manifestations of the Mongol imperial ideology and allow not only to clearly identify its contours and content, but also to establish with the greatest possible accuracy the moment of transition of the Mongols from predatory and punitive expeditions to systematic subordination of the whole known world space. To achieve this goal, materials contained in the collective work “Collection of Chronicles” (“Jami al-tawarikh”) were analyzed, the compiler and, apparently, the main author of which was a Persian doctor and a major administrator of Jewish origin, Fazlallah Rashid al-Din Hamadani (1247–1318), who served at the court of Ilkhans Gazan (1295–1304) and Oldjeitu (1304–1316). This work is rightfully considered one of the most important sources on the Mongol Empire. In terms of amount of information about its prehistory and early history, it has no equal. The “Collection of Chronicles” contains unique information about spiritual climate of the steppes in XII – early XIII centuries and the personality of Temujin/Genghis Khan (1162?–1227), shedding light on his ideas about the world space and possible plans regarding its subjugation, about conquering plans of his descendants and their implementations. It is difficult to name an aspect of the Mongol imperial ideology that would not be reflected on its pages. Rashid al-Din, as a person who held high positions in the Ilkhanate, had wide access to information, which is why his words, in general, deserve trust and in many cases are confirmed by other sources. Despite the fact that by the time his work was compiled, the Mongol Empire as a whole had not existed for a long time, the “Collection of Chronicles” is permeated with the idea of unity of the Mongol world.

Предмети мілітарного й подвійного призначення на середньовічному поселенні Лісники-Безодня

Weaponry, horseman's, and warhorse's equipment for unfortified settlements were traditionally considered unusual. Only in the last quarter of the XX century, after extensive studies of the villages of southern Rus, a conclusion was made about the parity of relations between cities and their rural environment and about the inherent character of the rural centers of the mentioned category of things. However, recurrences of the old views continue to appear in recent publications, although the essential question seems to be whether the villagers were the subject or object of the use of the found weapons. New data on this category of findings have recently been obtained due to research on the settlement Lisnyky-Bezodnia in the southern suburbs of Kyiv. The site was discovered in 1991 by V. Petrashenko and V. Koziuba and has been repeatedly examined by the Northern Expedition of the Institute of Archeology of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine. Furthermore, in 2021, excavations were carried out on the site. As a result, several objects were investigated in the horizons of the Kyivan Rus and primitive / paleometal periods, and a representative collection of material from these eras was formed. Small in volume but quite an interesting group of things presenting militaristic and dual-purpose objects. Five arrowheads belong to the long-range weapons. All of them are petiolate, have analogies among the types common in Kievan Rus, and some – in the adjacent territories, some of them belong to the category of armor-piercing. Another find is identified as an awl. The object resembles an awl-shaped point, which has been repeatedly found in quiver sets, along with other types of arrowheads. Among the discoveries from the village is a knife, the size of which exceeds the indicators for this category of findings. In the literature, if they did not have a true combat purpose, large knives were proposed to be seen not as universal tools but as hunting weapons. The rider's equipment is represented by a whole sharp and a fragment of another. Elements of both items have analogies among the materials of the XII – first half of the XIII century. Products do not characterize peasant life; they mark the stay of the elite. Horse equipment from the settlement – rod of some snaffle and rod with a ring of others. Such finds are not uncommon. Moreover, although they are attributed to the evidence of the presence of war horses, it is logical to consider things as an indicator of the presence of these animals in general without limiting the purpose exclusively to combat clashes, which has already been noted in publications. In contrast to the previous ones, the other two finds were used for expensive horses, primarily combated ones. We are talking about two sets of metal halters equipped with cylindrical locks. The tendency of these products to the fortified points with representatives of the military-trade state and the lack of data on the fixation of these things on the monuments of rural type indicates the originality of the studied village. The cases of the detection of such items at other unfortified sites were considered to assess the role and place of the collection of items of the named purpose from the village in the Bezodnia tract in Lisnyky. The obtained data indicate the presence of few weapons and equestrian equipment in the layers of settlements and, at the same time, lead to the statement of cases of concentration of such things in sometimes separated from the main territory areas where other prestigious products are concentrated. The collection from Lisnyky-Bezodnia was gathered in a relatively limited area, not in the center or on the dominant hill. This leads to the conclusion that the partially studied monument presents a rather bright and extraordinary phenomenon and emphasizes the inexhaustibility of information opportunities of medieval village structures. Key words: Lisnyky-Bezodnia, Kyivan Rus, medieval settlement, arrowheads, spurs, horse. Language: Ukrainian

Tatars of the Jochid Ulus: the formation and development of an ethnopolitical identity in the 13th–15th centuries

Research objectives: To analyze the processes behind the formation and development of the Tatar ethnopolitical community in the Ulus of Jochi in the XIII–XV centuries. Research materials: The author of the article examines a variety of sources that reflect the progressive development of the Tatar ethnopolitical community in the Ulus of Jochi during the XIII–XV centuries. Results and novelty of the research: The Tatars of the Jochid Ulus during the XIII–XV centuries were usually studied from a socio-political point of view, with little attention being paid to the study of mental structures. Nevertheless, the formation of the ethnopolitical community of the Tatars – something which determines the mental universe of the population of the Ulus of Jochi – deserves and receives here more intensive study. The Mongol invasion brought not only destruction to the countries of Eurasia, but also led to the formation of a new Mongol Empire, and at the end of the XIII century, the successor Chingisid states. In all these khanates, there was a process of formation of their statehood and ethnopolitical consolidation. In the Ulus of Jochi, this process was associated with the formation of the Tatar ethnopolitical community. It turns out that during the conquests of Chingis Khan and his heirs in different countries of Eurasia from the Near and Middle East to Central Asia and Eastern Europe, Tatars were present among the troops of the Khans, playing the role of a military aristocracy. Due to these objective and other subjective reasons, the Tatar identity became the leading one in the Jochid Ulus, manifesting itself in the ideas that the Jochid Ulus was a country of the Tatars, the term itself becoming synonymous with the military service aristocracy. Tatars were also understood as Turkic nomadic people with their own clan structure.

Historical and Аnthropological Сontext and Рersonal Image in the Persian-Tajik Literature of the Heyday Period (X–XIII Centuries)

Тhe study presents an analysis of a unique civilizational phenomenon: the Iranian-Tajik literature of the heyday period (X-XIII centuries), its historical and social environment. The article is rather staged in nature and anticipates the author’s intention to conduct a broader historical and comparative comparison of the epic and artistic works of the peoples of the Indo–Iranian world, of which the Ossetian ethnos is also a part. This research is the initial stage of the planned research, its introductory part. The possibilities of one journal publication allow us to turn to the analysis of Persian literature on the example of only the most prominent representatives of the period of its heyday: Firdousi, Omar Khayyam, Saadi, Rumi. The study provides a brief substantive analysis of the creativity of these authors by the main ideological categories: the semantic context of the eternal confrontation between good and evil; views on the concept of power and the image of the “good king”; understanding of physical labor, humanistic meanings of human existence; religion, love. The specificity of the article is the scientific interest in the socio-cultural orientation of the artistic creativity of medieval poets who wrote in Farsi, its aesthetics, moral motivation, value characteristics and the general historical and anthropological content of the sung ideals. Having settled at the crossroads of trade routes and cultural influences, the Iranians were distinguished by genuine loyalty and at the same time unique civilizational stability. The indescribable charm of Persian literature reflected the influence of various ideological, philosophical, religious, moral and ethical systems and ancient beliefs. But the main focus is still on the “Iranian world’s” own refraction of this unique cultural and ethical symbiosis.

Assessment of the quality of double-entry bookkeeping, the resources needed to create it, and the ingenuity of medieval merchants

The traditional hypothesis about the origin of double-entry bookkeeping is based on the assumption that double-entry bookkeeping was accidentally invented and perfected during one XIII century by amateur merchants who did not have a specific purpose and did not know the methods of designing information technologies. in other words, double-entry bookkeeping is created with the involvement of minimal intellectual, financial and time resources. the whole building of this hypothesis is based on this assumption. This assumption itself is not based on anything: neither on documents, nor on estimates, nor on reasoning. the article shows by a comparative historical method the implausibility of this assumption, and hence the hypothesis about the origin of double-entry bookkeeping in general. This was done in several independent ways, which made it possible to demonstrate the outstanding qualitative characteristics of double-entry bookkeeping, the huge resources needed to create it, and the extremely insignificant ingenuity (in terms of information technology development) of the Europeans of the XIII-XV centuries (including merchants). the results of the study showed that the creation of double bookkeeping required at least five centuries of purposeful work of professional methodologists funded by the state, whereas medieval merchants were not able to invent double bookkeeping in any reasonable time.

Išuwa towards the end of the XIII century BC (on the problem of the grooved ware)

At the end of the XIII century BC archaeological excavations carried out in various regions of Eastern Turkey have revealed a complete cultural break, thus marking the end of the Late Bronze Age (LBA) and the rise of the Early Iron Age (EIA). The main peculiarity for the new culture is the appearance of the so-called "grooved ware" which was unearthed during the excavations at numerous sites on the territory of Išuwa, a political unit well attested by Hittite cuneiform texts. This same ware is known also from several sites located in different parts of Eastern Highlands (eastern Lake Van basin, Tillehöyük, Lidarhöyük, Erzurum, Iğdır, etc.). To date the causes of this phenomenon are not clear. Ch. Burney and V. Sevin were the first to assume that at least in the case of the Upper Euphrates basin the transition from LBA to EIA was the result of migration from Transcaucasia. Later this as-sumption was cast doubt on by other archaeologists. U. Müller suggested that the source for the grooved ware should be looked for in Išuwa, and that later some population of this region moved to the south and south-east. For the solution to this problem the author refers to the movement of the population of the Kura-Araxes culture of Transcaucasia and neighboring regions to the south-west and south which happened about 2000 years before the end of the LBA, during the termination of the Early Bronze Age I in Transcaucasia (end of the IV millennium BC). Most probably, the causes of both migrations could be the result of the so-called 5.2 and 3.2 kiloyear climatic events. Strikingly, the routes of the Kura-Araxes I migrants coincide with that of the grooved ware people. Thus, the suggestion of Ch. Burney and V. Sevin seem more plausible than the proposals put forward by later authors. Most probably in both cases we deal with significant migrations of Transcaucasian population groups.

Filosofía y sátira: EL ΦΙΛΟΠΛΑΤΩΝ de Teodoro Pródomos (H 149)

It is offered here a Spanish translation of the Φιλοοπλάηων, with introduction, notes and interpreting commentary; it is highlighted that this work represents the genre satura in Byzantium, according to a large tradition assumed by the 'classicism' of the XIIth century, that is represented also by Ἀμαθής, Καηὰ θιλοπόρνοσ γραός and Καηὰ μακρογενείοσ γέρονηος; these works have similarities with Φιλοπλάηων.

XVII-XVIII Centure’s Georgia and ,,The Knight in the Panther’s Skin“

In the article bu using   XII-XVIII  centuries Kartvelian historiacal and literary resources pass an supposed opinion rgan  ,,The Knight in the Panther’s Skin’s “ author, Shota Rustaveli may be was from main feuda patrimonial of Dadiani’s family. The Poem’s and it’s author’s disappear may be explained by the internal political intestine, that occurs in the end of XII and in the beginning of XIII centuries.

Обучение испанскому языку в вузе посредством авторского учебного курса на основе средневековых художественных текстов (на материале эпической поэмы «Песнь о моем Сиде»)

The aim of the study is to substantiate the need to introduce literary texts of the XIII century (with a diachronic translation into modern Spanish) into the process of teaching Spanish to university students. The paper describes the structure and content of the course “Spain: History, Society, Literature”, provides recommendations for working with medieval texts based on the material of a lesson on a Spanish heroic epic. Scientific novelty of the paper lies in identifying the basic principles of developing an author’s training course for teaching a foreign language to students based on literary texts. The result obtained was the potential of involving a literary text of any historical epoch in the process of foreign language teaching at a university in an effective and productive manner.

ON THE FOUNDATION OF NIZHNY NOVGOROD ASCENSION MONASTERY

The article deals with the formation of the Pechersky Ascension Monastery in the city of Nizhny Novgorod in the first half of the XIII century. The role of Saint Dionysius of Suzdal in the creation of the monastery is traced. The time interval during which the monastery could be formed is determined. The hypotheses of researchers regarding the date of the Ascension Monastery’s foundation are analyzed. The issue concerning the personality of the founder – Saint Dionysius, the place where the monastery was originally founded, is investigated. It is concluded that the foundation of the Ascension Monastery is not only an important milestone in the history of Nizhny Novgorod, but also an important stage in the spread of monastic “cenobia” throughout the Northeastern Russia.

Socio-Political Situation of Alania on Eve of Mongol Conquest

The relevance of the study is determined by the consideration of the issues of the socio-political structure of the medieval Alanian state, which are one of the debatable in modern alanistics, which is manifested mainly in the use of regressive or progressive approaches in interpreting the political system of Alania, as well as in the use of various approaches in describing its political structure. The avoidance of these approaches in the interpretation of social and political orders in Alanya during the period under review has become a scientific novelty of the study. As a result, it was concluded that the basis of the socio-political structure of Alania in the first forty years of the XIII century was a specific combination of forms of the suzerain-vassal hierarchy and patriarchal-tribal democracy, with weak political unity, supported by the presence of a common ruling dynasty, but in reality it was a conglomerate of several territorial and tribal possessions formed by a network of unilocal consanguineous collectives capable of being part of wider internal political associations formed on the basis of the principle of artificial kinship, which, perhaps, were similar in structure to the sworn brotherhoods known in the Caucasus until the middle of the 19th century.

ARCHITECTURAL AND PLANNING ORGANIZATION OF THE FORMATION OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF RESIDENTIAL ARCHITECTURE IN IVANO-FRANKIVSK IN THE PERIOD 1944-1989

Starting from the XIII century. clear differences in the development of cities in the region are emerging, which are caused by different levels of socio-economic development, political situation (the region is part of different states), etc. In this connection, the settlements of the region are experiencing various morphological transformations. These changes often had a diverse character in individual regions. Examining the process of forming a new architectural image of the centers of Western Ukrainian cities during 1944–1989, attention is drawn to the fact that this twenty-year period is characterized by the predominance of technocratic principles and postulates, the artificial separation of architecture from its general cultural foundations. Focusing on quantitative and technological indicators levels the spatial essence of architecture and takes it out of the general cultural context. Adherence to the prescriptive direction of the preference of the "new" over the "old" also had negative consequences for the formation of the image of the centers of small historical towns. The second generation of general plans of these cities, worked out in the 1960s, provided primarily for the functional zoning of the territory.
 The image of the city of Ivano-Frankivsk was formed over a long time, through gradual additions and changes in the historical and spatial structure. This article examines the period from 1944-1989 in the architecture of the city of Ivano-Frankivsk. The basic stages of the development of Soviet architecture are revealed and an assessment of architectural and spatial changes and housing construction in the city is made.
 During this period, the development of the architectural and planning structure of the city meets the contemporary requirements of urban planning and focuses on new industrial enterprises and warehouses. Arrangement of residential areas and micro-districts with the creation of the necessary complex of institutions for cultural and household services of the population and green spaces.
 The development of the central part of the city consists in the fact that the historically formed street network was generally preserved, and the neighborhood development was supplemented with numerous houses - "seals" of medium storeys. Their architectural image is significantly enriched with elements of regional folk architecture, which is positively perceived by both the professional environment and city residents.

ЕТНОКУЛЬТУРНА ІДЕНТИФІКАЦІЯ НАЦІЇ КРІЗЬ ПРИЗМУ ВІКІВ

In the article, we analyzed the interaction of language and nation. We have reviewed works that reveal the problem of speech markers and sociolinguistic disputes. The aim of our article was to analyze the features of ethnolinguistic identification of representatives of the language group of Ukraine – "Ruthenians". We used a descriptive method. In the article we considered a pseudoscientific direction – neorusyn, which functions in the territory of modern Transcarpathia and beyond the boundaries of Ukraine, where the settlers from the West Ukrainian lands live compactly. We analysed the situation that was formed in the Transcarpathian region since the end of the XIX century and continues to the present time. Rusyn language is a pseudo-scientific hypothesis which is directed at the disintegration of society. With the help of manipulation schemes, is fulfiled the replacement of concept. The Ruthenian language is a pseudo-scientific hypothesis aimed at disintegrating society. During the period of Ukraine's independence, there was no effective language policy that regulated various pseudo-scientific and pseudo-historical movements that threaten the integrity of the state. The neo-Russian movement originated in the 1950s. At this time, Ukrainians living in Galicia, Bukovina, Transcarpathia, Nadsyannia, Kholm, Presov, began to resist the totalitarian regime of Soviet rule. According to chronicles, it can be convincingly stated that the proper name of Russia in the X – XIII centuries. was related exclusively to the lands of modern Kyiv. The ethnonym Rus is a collective noun, from which the derived ethnonym Rusyn was formed with the help of the suffix -in.

Medieval Thinkers on the Organization of Supreme Power (Form of Government)

As a rule, Russia of the XI–XIII centuries is called an early feudal monarchy in modern historical literature. In pre-revolutionary historiography, there was a widespread statement about Russia’s initial commitment to a monarchical form of government. In foreign literature, it has been transformed into an idea of the imperial thinking that has long been characteristic of Russia. Currently, the expansion of the source base, achieved as a result of scientific discoveries and the application of new research methods by modern historians, philologists, philosophers and historians of state and law, political and legal doctrines, has largely changed the perception of the level of general cultural and political and legal development of Medieval Russia. Russian mediev all thinkers gave various recommendations on the organization of state power in the country, the creation of an image of an ideal ruler, the limitation of supreme power. The article examines the ideas about the organizationof the supreme power of three of the most prominent thinkers of the XI – first quarter of the XIII centuries: Metropolitan Hilarion, the great Prince of Kiev Vladimir Monomakh and an unknown author who hid his name under the nickname Daniel the Sharpener.

KEÇECİZÂDE İZZET MOLLA’NIN MİHNET-KEŞÂN’INDA KADIN

The position of women in Turkish society has undergone changes over the centuries due to social, political and religious reasons. In the historical process, this change is generally divided into three groups as pre-Islamic, Islamic and Western-influenced periods. During the pre-Islamic nomadic life style, women were extremely active in the society and had the same rights as men, but after the acceptance of Islam, the position of women changed, isolated from social life and even devalued. This is due to the fact that the cultures of other nations were included in Turkish culture under the name of religion with the acceptance of the new religion. Since Classical Turkish literature, which has a history of six centuries between the XIII and XIX centuries, is a literature that emerged in the field of Islamic civilization, the view of women in the works of this period was negative in parallel with the social point of view. In the study, Keçecizâde İzzet Molla's masnavi named Mihnet-Keşân was examined as an example of the reflection of this situation on literary works. The work, completed by İzzet Molla in 1825, was written at a time when the effect of Westernization began to appear in our literature in all aspects. The work, unlike the tradition, reflects the social structure of the period from a realistic point of view. In this aspect, the couplets containing the reflections of the woman's point of view in the work, which is the messenger of innovations in Turkish literature, have been determined and interpreted. Keywords: Classical Turkish Literature, Gender, Sergüzeştname

The Form of Government in Russia in the XI – First Third of the XIII Centuries

The article discusses the form of government in Russia in the XI – first third of the XIII centuries by way of discussion. It is proposed to characterize the form of government in Russia during this period as a democratic republic, since the authorities in it were: the invited Grand Duke, the Council under him and the People’s Assembly. The competence of the Veche included extensive powers: inviting the prince to the Grand Princely Table and denying him this honor, both at the end of the term of the contract (“row”) established with him, and before the expiration, in case the prince disagreed with the Veche in resolving issues related to public administration, the amount of taxes, the disposal of funds, land ownership, appointment of administrative persons (posadnikov, tiunov, sotnikov, etc.); judicial proceedings (supreme court); declaration of war and conclusion of peace. Such a political, economic and administrative competence of the Veche allows us to conclude about a republican, not a monarchical form of government. The position proposed in the article on these problems is justified by the information contained in the chronicle sources: The Tale of Bygone Years, the Laurentian and Ipatiev Chronicles.

CHRONICLER's PERSPECTIVE: COVERAGE OF THE CONFLICT BETWEEN THE CITY AND THE EPISCOPATE IN THE XVI CENTURY (BASED ON THE CHRONICLE OF WORMS BY F. ZORN AND THE CHRONICLE OF THE BISHOPS OF WÜRZBURG BY L. FRIES)

The epoch of the Late Middle Ages and early Modern Times (XV-XVI centuries) became a turning point for the history of the German language. The urban literature was rapidly developing, first of all, chronicles. Historiographic genres are most richly represented in imperial and free cities. The interest of the citizens in history stimulates the development of both city and regional chronicles. The collisions of the period, the struggle between the commune and the lords are reflected in these works. The purpose of the article is to analyze the interpretation of conflicts between the burghers and the episcopate in two chronicles of the XVI century, different in type, but with high cultural and historical significance, that is, the Chronicle of Worms by F. Zorn and the Chronicle of the Bishops of Würzburg by L. Fries. For the analysis, text fragments were chosen that tell about the collisions of the late Staufen era (the second third of the XIII century), while the main attention is paid to the Worms chronicle, since it most fully describes the events of this period. Both chroniclers present events fairly correctly, but they do it from different angles. Thus, the author of the Worms chronicle, F. Zorn, is quite negative towards the clergy and the pope, and is even able to verbally attack the latter. He explains the conflicts between the city and the bishops by the imperious claims and machinations of the latter, adhering to the position of the City Council. By contrast, L. Fries in the Chronicle of the Bishops of Würzburg, although restrained in his judgments and striving to be objective, describes the uprising of citizens against the bishop in negative tones, considering it a manifestation of outrage and a violation of the God-established order.

Scholasticism as a Systematic European Philosophy of the Middle Ages

The article examines the contribution of the greatest encyclopedic mind of antiquity - Aristotle to the formation of scholasticism. The direct and indirect influence of Aristotelian ideas can be traced during the long period of the formation of scholasticism. The emergence of non–Christian Aristotelianism – Averroism - was an important moment in the history of philosophy. An adherent of authentic Aristotelianism - Averroes, translated the works of Aristotle and interpreted them through the concepts of Arabic philosophy. The topic of the influence of authentic scholasticism on patristic theology is touched upon. The traditional understanding of scholasticism as a combination of Christian theology with the philosophy of Aristotle is noted. Scholasticism, being a religious philosophy, applies philosophical concepts and techniques to the Christian-church doctrine, the early experience of which is contained in patristics. Scholasticism, as a religious philosophy, needed the development of theological thought and its development took place along with the development of theology. Studying the great ancient thinkers – Plato and Aristotle, the development of scholasticism has moved forward especially noticeably, which is reflected in the formation of scholastic metaphysics. The penetration of Aristotelianism in the XIII century into Christian philosophy marked the heyday of scholasticism. The scholastics turned their eyes to the ancient thinkers in order to establish Christian truth. Aristotle was presented to them as a universal thinker with a broad outlook, who achieved knowledge by the aspirations of reason. The similarity of Aristotle's organic worldview and the Christian understanding of the spirit and life turned out to be suitable for representatives of scholasticism, who noticed the similarity of Aristotle's teaching about the existence of God with the teaching of Holy Scripture.