Well-to-wheel Research Articles

Fit for 2030? Possible scenarios of road transport demand, energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions for Italy

Decarbonizing the transportation sector is one of the key challenges to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and meet EU Green deal 2030 targets. Road transport decarbonization requires a holistic approach encompassing various strategies and interventions aimed at fostering the sustainable transition of this sector. This challenge is crucial given that road is responsible for over 90% of the overall transport GHG emissions.Within this framework, this study aims, for the Italian case, to: a) estimate the national passenger and freight road travel demand with respect to three different time periods: 2005 (reference year for EU “fit for 55” target); 2019 (last consolidated pre-covid year); 2022 (base-line year); b) define possible road transport scenarios to 2030 following the Avoid-Shift-Improve (ASI) approach; c) estimate the GHG and energy consumption inventory related to national road transport for the 2005, 2019; 2022 and 2030 scenarios. Due to the current “deep uncertainty” regarding key economic and social variables in this period, two forecasting scenarios – named “moderate decarbo” and “high decarbo” – were designed and based on different and somewhat opposite hypotheses on exogenous variables (e.g., GDP) and penetration rates of measures and policies promoting sustainable transportation (e.g., subsidies for electric vehicles) already in place. Although the current European legislation refers only to Tank-to-Wheel (TtW) objectives, this study included also the Well-to-Wheel (WtW) evaluation, which is more accurate in assessing the GHG impact of different policies, energy carriers, and technologies. As for the past, results suggest that GHG reductions over the period 2005–2022 are mostly due to crises and stagnation of the Italian economy. “Moderate decarbo” forecasts for 2030 lead to a 12% reduction of TtW (and 15% for WtW) GHG emissions compared to 2005 levels, with ASI policies compensating for the assumed economic growth. In any case these values are far from the EU “Fit for 55” goal setting a 43.7% reduction of TtW emissions. Even under very favourable hypotheses (“high decarbo” scenario), GHG emissions might be reduced by only 28% for TtW and 33% for WtW, still well below EU objectives. Furthermore, passengers and freight show very different behaviour, with the latter contributing to emissions more than proportionally, and “shift-to-rail” policies, although very useful in some market segments, contribute moderately at the overall national level. The main conclusion of this study is that the pathway towards road transport decarbonization in Italy (and possibly in other EU Countries) is very uncertain, and the ambitious 2030 target is unlikely to be met with currently planned policies alone. The transportation system needs to be constantly monitored, and new policies have to be implemented to reach higher emissions reduction goals.

Impacts of mode shift on well-to-wheel emissions from inter-capital transport in Australia – Part I: Road and rail transport

Achieving mode shift in the transport sector will help Australia to meet its target for net-zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050, although robust data on its effectiveness have previously been limited. This analysis provides valuable new information on mode shift impacts on emissions in Australia and demonstrates some recently developed assessment tools. The analysis considers the potential of a shift from road to rail to reduce well-to-wheel (WTW) emissions (as CO2-equivalents, CO2-e) in 2019, 2030, and 2050, specifically for a case study involving the transport of passengers and freight between Brisbane and Melbourne. The analysis provides emission intensities (EIs) in grams per passenger-km (g/pkm) and grams per tonne-km (g/tkm), as well as annualized emissions, and considers the variability and uncertainty in the estimates using a probabilistic approach. The transfer of passengers and freight from road to rail has the potential to significantly reduce emissions. Electric rail delivers the largest and least uncertain emission reductions. For passenger transport, the EI of electric rail (12 g CO2-e/pkm in 2030; 6.5 g CO2-e/pkm in 2050) is considerably lower than that of road transport (143.2 g CO2-e/pkm in 2030; 58.9 g CO2-e/pkm in 2050), and the uncertainty is lower. For freight transport, the EI of electric rail (8.6 g CO2-e/tkm in 2030; 5.0 CO2-e/tkm in 2050) is also substantially lower than that for road transport (48.3 g CO2-e/tkm in 2030; 29.5 g CO2-e/tkm in 2050). The EI for diesel rail freight (27.0 g CO2-e/tkm in 2030; 26.1 g CO2-e/tkm in 2050) is around half of the value for road transport in 2030, but road transport becomes more competitive by 2050. The complete transfer of passengers between Brisbane and Melbourne from road to electric rail would reduce annual WTW emissions for passenger transport by 75 – 90%, depending on the year. The complete transfer of freight from road to diesel rail would reduce annual emissions by 45% in 2019 and 2030 and by 10% in 2050. The study and tools will help researchers, policymakers, transport/land-use planners, and network operators to quantify, design, and implement mode shift measures to reduce emissions.

Multifaceted multi-criteria decision making framework to prioritise the electric two-wheelers based on standard and regional driving cycles

The primary objective of the carried-out research work is to utilise the multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) techniques to rank the top-selling electric two-wheeler (E2W) models based on the different performance features stated by original equipment manufacturers and estimated through standard and regional driving cycle (DC) analysis. First and foremost, the vehicle structural, powertrain, performance features, and cost component-related data of eight top-selling E2W models (M1–M8) are gathered from the official websites of OEMs and local dealers. Then, performance features like energy consumption per km (EC/km), driving range (DR), well-to-wheel (WTW) CO2 emission, total cost of ownership (TCO), and total cost of ownership per km (TCO/km) are estimated under standard and regional DCs through the developed energy consumption and TCO models. Further, the ten different MCDM tools are utilised for prioritising the E2W models under each DC with the attributes’ weights estimated from the entropy methods. To enhance the trustworthiness of ranking results, sensitivity analysis is done using six distinct combinations of attribute weights. Moreover, the M7 E2W is identified as the best E2W by utilising Borda Count to integrate all the ranking results. Overall, this study provides an in-depth understanding for users about how to select E2W with minimal effort.

The impact of ambient temperature and powertrains of SUVs on the environment in Slovakia during the use phase

This study compares different powertrains of sport utility vehicles (SUVs) with respect to ambient temperature and energy mix in Slovakia using the well-to-wheel (WTW) Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) method. Battery electric vehicles (BEV), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV), and petrol and diesel vehicles were assessed and compared. The WTW study was conducted in SimaPro software assessing electricity/petrol/diesel production, transport, and use (energy conversion in the vehicle), with impact categories being climate change, particulates, NOx emissions, ionizing radiation, and fossil resource scarcity depending on the season (summer and winter). The results indicate that for Slovak conditions, BEV generally had the lowest environmental impact in both seasons studied. The only exceptions were ionizing radiation, which is clearly caused by the high share of nuclear power in the Slovak energy mix, and NOx emissions, which are caused by the combustion of biomass for electricity generation. The other impact categories were dominated by vehicles with an internal combustion engine. The results of emissions from fuel production are also given for each impact category. The transportation of fuel did not exceed the value of 1% for any impact category or for any powertrain. The conclusions of the study support the global trend in favour of vehicle electrification as an important way to reduce the negative environmental impacts of internal combustion engine vehicles in Slovakia.

A comparative well-to-wheel analysis of renewable energy pathways for hydrogen and battery electric vehicles

Renewable hydrogen and batteries are pivotal not only for promoting renewable energy adoption but also for serving as key components in electric vehicles. While multiple hydrogen-based and battery-based pathways exist for linking renewable energy to automotive powertrains, comprehensive evaluations of them are lacking, especially in the context of long-distance energy transmission in China. This study aims to fill this gap by offering an in-depth well-to-wheel (WTW) analysis of costs and CO2 emissions across various pathways. The pathways involve two energy storage mediums - hydrogen and battery, five transport options, and three automotive powertrains - Internal Combustion Engine Vehicle (ICEV), Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV), and Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV). How the electricity price, storage duration, and transport distance influence these pathways is also examined. The results show that the battery-based pathway offers the lowest WTW cost and CO2 emissions in BEV applications. Hydrogen-based pathways are not economically feasible for ICEVs. Importantly, the indirect use of hydrogen in BEVs - H2 for power generation - outperforms its direct use in FCEVs and ICEVs in both cost and emissions. The battery-based pathway is significantly affected by storage duration and becomes less feasible for durations exceeding one day. The most cost-efficient hydrogen transport methods are identified for different transport distances and electricity prices. This research may provide valuable insights for the planning of the hydrogen industry, automotive decarbonization and renewable energy development in China.

Quantifying delayed climate mitigation benefits in electric and hydrogen fuel cell vehicle deployment for sustainable mobility

In the fight against climate change, transitioning to green transport is imperative. Our study evaluates the Greenhouse Gas Emission Breakeven Time (GBET) for Electric Vehicles (EVs) and Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles (HFCVs) in China, the largest auto market globally. Emissions vary significantly across Chinese provinces due to differences in grid carbon intensity, hydrogen production methods, and vehicle usage. EVs show more than a 50 % difference in Well-to-Wheel (WTW) emissions regionally, which is also true for HFCVs, although they exhibit less interprovincial variability, suggesting a steadier reduction trend. These findings stress the need for regional considerations in Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and introduce the concept of “climate debt” to evaluate the delayed benefits of emission reductions. HFCVs, benefiting from cleaner hydrogen production advancements, can repay their climate debt about 60 % quicker than EVs, presenting a caveat: the risk of short-term emission spikes if the initial greenhouse gas surplus isn't efficiently compensated. We found that the average GBET for EV-Cars is about 3.39 years and for EV-SUVs (Sports Utility Vehicle), 4.23 years. Comparatively, HFCV-Cars and HFCV-SUVs have shorter average GBETs of roughly 1.39 and 1.43 years, respectively, indicating faster environmental paybacks. Conclusively, our study endorses regional assessment frameworks and highlights HFCVs' role in China's path to a low-carbon future. It is essential for sustainable mobility stakeholders to adapt vehicle technology adoption and related policies to local energy contexts to meet climate goals. Our research provides crucial insights into how green vehicles can achieve emission targets, advocating for a localized approach in sustainable transportation strategies.

Reduced travel emissions through a carbon calculator with accessible environmental data: a case study in Madison, Wisconsin

The echoing environmental toll of the transportation system calls for a drastic need to move beyond carbon-intensive modes of transportation into more sustainable ones. With the rise of emerging modes of transportation, this transition is more promising than ever. In this work, we take a travel-centric approach to promoting and accelerating the transition away from carbon-intensive modes of transportation by informing travelers about their emissions. A carbon calculator—as a function of trip distance and Well-to-Wheel (WTW) Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)—was developed and embedded on a website platform. Users would input their trip distance, and the calculator outputs the carbon footprint (CO2e) of the trip if it was to be done through seven different modes: car (gasoline), car (hybrid), car (electric), bus, electric bike, bike, and walking. In addition, the calculator outputs the equivalent of CO2e as cheeseburgers for a more intuitive display. The overall goal of this work is to understand how travelers respond to being exposed to carbon footprint information. This serves as a step forward in realizing a sustainable transportation system. We make available the calculator online through this link. Study results indicated that trip distance, environmental awareness, age, income, and mode of transportation used were the most influential features in predicting modal shifts. Importantly, the majority of modal shifts resulted in reduced CO2e emissions.

Well‐to‐wheels analysis of greenhouse gas emissions for passenger vehicles in Middle East and North Africa

AbstractBattery electric vehicles (BEVs) are widely considered a pathway to achieve low carbon mobility. BEVs emit zero emissions from the tailpipe, but their life cycle carbon reduction compared to gasoline vehicles varies based on primary energy sources, electricity generation, and use efficiency. The Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region is an area rich in fossil fuels, meriting a detailed comparison between the emissions from BEV and other powertrains. We developed a MENA‐specific life cycle model that estimates well‐to‐wheel (WTW) greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from passenger transport with internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), plug‐in hybrid electric vehicles, and BEVs. MENA's average WTW GHG emissions for all supply chain steps including combustion emissions from vehicle operation are 767 g/kWh and 84 g CO2eq/MJ for electricity and gasoline, respectively, but are highly variable due to heterogeneity in upstream supply chains. The use of hybrid gasoline ICEVs provides the largest emission reduction opportunity for existing vehicle fleets in 9 of the 16 MENA countries. For these nine countries, replacing gasoline ICEVs with HEVs could, on average, reduce country‐level life cycle GHG emissions by 47%. There is a similar emission reduction opportunity for 14 of the 16 MENA countries when normalizing vehicle efficiencies irrespective of the powertrain shares and other trends in existing vehicle fleets. Future scenario analysis shows that BEVs would have the lowest WTW GHG emissions among all powertrains in most MENA countries only if significantly reduced electricity transmission losses and cleaner grid mix are realized, although a high cost of infrastructure developments is expected.

Trends and policy analysis: A case for sustainable transport systems in India

In this article, we analyse India's transport sector policy. The study examines the two important modes of transport, viz., road and rail, and analyses the efficiency of transport infrastructure from 2011 to 2019. Through Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA), we evaluate modes in terms of the capacity of registered road goods vehicles and railway goods wagons, truck km/train km and energy consumption and corresponding freight traffic. The analysis gives valuable insight into the fact that rail infrastructure is more efficient than road infrastructure. Still, current transport sector policies promote energy-intensive carbon-fuel road vehicles rather than energy-efficient alternative transport modes. The study suggests the changes that may be incorporated in inputs to improve the efficiency of the road infrastructure. The Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA)-Malmquist Index analysis reports the need for total factor productivity improvement in rail transport and the introduction of technological innovations in road and rail transport sector management. The study employs a well-to-wheel (WTW) based index to ascertain the energy consumed and pollutants emitted by freight-carrying road and rail modes between two leading business hubs of India, i.e., Ludhiana and Mumbai. The paper identifies policy gaps and suggests a holistic approach for need-based roadway investment and a time-bound development of railway infrastructure in India. Our study generates valuable implications for India's policy planners and government authorities and provides new insights to other countries.

Evaluating battery electric vehicle usage in the EU: A comparative study based on member state energy mixes

The transport sector is undergoing a major transformation, as battery electric vehicles (BEV) are gaining ground. Therefore, assessing the sustainability aspects of their use is crucial to obtaining a clear picture of the sector. This article aims to meet this requirement by using European Union (EU) data for the period 2011 to 2021 and focuses not only on EU-27 aggregates but also on each member state separately. For the evaluation, a well-to-wheel (WTW) method was used to calculate two parameters: energy-specific CO2 emissions (ε) and total efficiency of energy conversions, transmission, and battery (ηtotal). For these values, the annual electricity mixes of the countries were tracked in 5 + 1 categories (combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT), thermal power plant, biofuels, nuclear power plant (NPP), renewables, and imports). The calculated results were illustrated by sustainability matrices describing the former and current positions of the countries. The EU-27 aggregate achieved a 0.04 increase (from 0.37 to 0.41) in total efficiency and a 29 gCO2/MJmotion decrease (from 113 to 84 gCO2/MJmotion) during the period. This ε value for 2021 was around half the world average. However, very significant differences were identified between member states, which are also assessed in the article with special emphases on the five most populated EU countries (Germany, France, Italy, Spain, and Poland).

Electrically heated catalyst enabling pollutants reduction in hybrid vehicles fueled with ethanol

Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV) have the potential of combining the benefits of a renewable electric mix with biofuels. More recently, PHEV have been designed to be equipped with a small combustion engine known as range extender (RE), thus allowing an improvement in vehicle’s range while converting fuel energy through a highly efficient path. Despite being a convenient strategy for decarbonizing light vehicles, the intermittent operation of the engine may create issues regarding the catalytic conversion of pollutants, yielding an increase in local harmful emissions. This drawback may be intensified depending on the used fuel. Hydrous ethanol is a promising alternative for gasoline and is already available in some countries, such as Brazil. However, ethanol has a great enthalpy of vaporization and it results in a charge cooling, affecting the catalyst warm-up and making the intermittent operation with ethanol more challenging. Hence, this study was motivated by the need of improving the catalytic efficiency of flexfuel RE operating with both gasoline and hydrous ethanol. Thus, a calibration was firstly performed to shorten the warm-up phase with ethanol. Then, an electrical heater was employed for accelerated catalyst heating, further improving emissions from ethanol operation, aiming at attaining future emissions regulations. Experimental tests were conducted in a vehicle under FTP72 cycle using a chassis dynamometer. The calibration adjustments resulted in a warm-up phase for ethanol <10 s longer than that for gasoline. The stable operation phase resulted in similar emissions for both fuels. On the cycle average, a reduction in CO for ethanol was observed, and although the methane and NOx emissions were slightly increased due to colder catalyst operation, significant improvements were obtained on a well-to-wheel (WTW) analysis. The use of an electrically heated catalyst (EHC) improved the emissions during the warm-up phase, significantly reducing the emission of NOx and non-methane organic compounds.

Life cycle assessment of Power-to-Gas (PtG) technology – Evaluation of system configurations of renewable hydrogen and methane production

Power-to-gas (PtG) is a novel technology with many system configurations whose environmental performances require a comparative evaluation with conventional technologies before large-scale deployment. This paper presents a life cycle assessment (LCA) of the PtG concept, assessing the main parameters and system variations involved in producing hydrogen and methane. The global warming potential (GWP) of producing 1 MJ of hydrogen averages 5.1 and 1.2 gCO2eq when electrolyzers are powered by solar PV and wind, respectively. On the other hand, the GWP associated with producing 1 MJ of methane from plant-derived CO2 is 6.5 gCO2eq when electricity is derived from solar PV and 1.5 gCO2eq when wind is utilized as a power source. Except for acidification potential and abiotic depletion, the other characterization factors (e.g., PED, POCP) show a similar pattern as GWP. The well-to-wheel (WTW) carbon footprints per km of hydrogen FCV are 98 % less than diesel ICE, while compressed natural gas vehicles are 29 % less than gasoline ICE.

Finding the most suitable vehicle type for projected years using analytic hierarchy process integrated with economic and environmental aspects

This study analyzes the economic and environmental feasibility of fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV), battery electric vehicle (BEV), and internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV) and determines which vehicles will be a more appropriate choice in the current and projected years (2025, 2030, 2035, and 2040) by using the analytic hierarchy process (AHP). Economic feasibility was calculated by estimating the total cost of ownership (TCO) during seven years of ownership period and introducing the experience curve effect to analyze the future behavior of the purchase price according to technological development. FCEV and BEV show a continuous decrease in TCO, while ICEV shows a continuous increase, resulting in TCO values as FCEV of 35,700 USD, BEV of 34,980 USD, and ICEV of 53,300 USD in 2040. The environmental analysis is implemented by the well-to-wheel (WTW) analysis, which measures greenhouse gases emitted during the production of energy source (well-to-tank), production of cars, and driving processes (tank-to-wheel). ICEV showed the highest emissions overall processes while FCEV showed the lowest emissions overall processes in all periods. The results from the TCO and WTW analyses are used in AHP that can integrate both aspects, and 1,500 pairs of weights are randomly assigned to economic and environmental criteria to measure their priorities. As a result, from 2030, all the priorities of FCEV and BEV became higher than those of ICEV, and the gap between them has widened, indicating that FCEV and BEV are more economically and environmentally suitable than ICEV.

Carbon footprint comparison analysis of passenger car segment electric and ICE propelled vehicles in Kuwait

Considering the decrease in the fossil-fuel reserves and environmental drawbacks of internal combustion engine (ICE) propelled vehicles, the usage of alternative prime movers such as electric vehicles (EVs) has gained significant potential in the last decades. Battery electric vehicles (BEVs), hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) are a few currently available examples of vehicle electrification. EVs have zero in-use emissions, however, depending on the region to be operated, well-to-wheel (WTW) emissions need to be considered for a realistic carbon footprint effect considering global warming (GW) analysis. Especially, considering the countries where the usage of renewable energy (RE) sources is extremely limited, such as Kuwait and other GCC countries, the benefit of EVs significantly decreases. Within this perspective in this study, an inclusive CO2 emissions analysis for two passenger segment vehicles with different prime movers are analyzed: ICE and electric motor (EM). Longitudinal vehicle models were developed via MATLAB/Simulink software for both prime mover configurations which are capable of simulating the fuel/energy consumption using Toyota Camry and Lexus UX 300e vehicles. The generated CO2 emissions by the two prime movers were compared using the previously generated Kuwait driving cycle (Kuwait DC). The results indicated that the use of BEVs generated fewer CO2 emissions nearly half the amount of what ICE propelled vehicles generated.

Vehicle Environmental Efficiency Evaluation in Different Regions in China: A Combination of the Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) and Two-Stage Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) Methods

The efficiency of the same vehicle can vary in different regions, posing unique challenges and implications for electric vehicles (EVs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) within a country. However, most studies have regarded countries as single entities, and it is difficult to assess differences in efficiency between similar entities by simply using the life cycle analysis (LCA) method. To provide the specific environmental efficiency of vehicles in each region, in this study, we used data from 100 cities in 30 provinces in China (4 provinces are not discussed due to a lack of data) and constructed a new road congestion indicator that simulated different road conditions at different times and in different regions. A more effective method, which consisted of LCA, two-stage data envelopment analysis (DEA) and a slack-based model (SBM), was integrated to reflect the phases of LCA more clearly. The results show that the well-to-wheel (WTW) emission range of internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) is 288.28–217.40 CO2-eq g/km, while it is 248.20–26.67 CO2-eq g/km for EVs, which means the WTW carbon emissions of EVs are generally lower than those of ICEVs (except in Heilongjiang Province). Furthermore, it was concluded that provinces with a high proportion of hydropower and a high degree of power autonomy could adjust the proportion of thermal power and inter-provincial power transmission to enhance environmental sustainability, and this would not change provincial environmental efficiency. The analysis suggests that provinces should consider both environmental protection and electricity sustainability when planning their own power development, rather than only focusing on improving environmental efficiency.

Uncovering the CO2 emissions of vehicles: A well-to-wheel approach

Carbon dioxide (CO2) from road traffic is a non-negligible part of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and it is a challenge for the world today to accurately estimate road traffic CO2 emissions and formulate effective emission reduction policies. Current emission inventories for vehicles have either low-resolution, or limited coverage, and they have not adequately focused on the CO2 emission produced by new energy vehicles (NEV) considering fuel life cycle. To fill the research gap, this paper proposed a framework of a high-resolution well-to-wheel (WTW) CO2 emission estimation for a full sample of vehicles and revealed the unique CO2 emission characteristics of different categories of vehicles combined with vehicle behavior. Based on this, the spatiotemporal characteristics and influencing factors of CO2 emissions were analyzed with the geographical and temporal weighted regression (GTWR) model. Finally, the CO2 emissions of vehicles under different scenarios are simulated to support the formulation of emission reduction policies. The results show that the distribution of vehicle CO2 emissions shows obvious heterogeneity in time, space, and vehicle category. By simply adjusting the existing NEV promotion policy, the emission reduction effect can be improved by 6.5%–13.5% under the same NEV penetration. If combined with changes in power generation structure, it can further release the emission reduction potential of NEVs, which can reduce the current CO2 emissions by 78.1% in the optimal scenario.

A Comparison of Well-to-Wheels Energy Use and Emissions of Hydrogen Fuel Cell, Electric, LNG, and Diesel-Powered Logistics Vehicles in China

Global energy and environmental issues are becoming increasingly serious, and the promotion of clean energy and green transportation has become a common goal for all countries. In the logistics industry, traditional fuels such as diesel and natural gas can no longer meet the requirements of energy and climate change. Hydrogen fuel cell logistics vehicles are expected to become the mainstream vehicles for future logistics because of their “zero carbon” advantages. The GREET model is computer simulation software developed by the Argonne National Laboratory in the USA. It is extensively utilized in research pertaining to the energy and environmental impact of vehicles. This research study examines four types of logistics vehicles: hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (FCVs), electric vehicles, LNG-fueled vehicles, and diesel-fueled vehicles. Diesel-fueled logistics vehicles are currently the most abundant type of vehicle in the logistics sector. LNG-fueled logistics vehicles are considered as a short-term alternative to diesel logistics vehicles, while electric logistics vehicles are among the most popular types of new-energy vehicles currently. We analyze and compare their well-to-wheels (WTW) energy consumption and emissions with the help of GREET software and conduct lifecycle assessments (LCAs) of the four types of vehicles to analyze their energy and environmental benefits. When comparing the energy consumption of the four vehicle types, electric logistics vehicles (EVs) have the lowest energy consumption, with slightly lower energy consumption than FCVs. When comparing the nine airborne pollutant emissions of the four vehicle types, the emissions of the FCVs are significantly lower than those of spark-ignition internal combustion engine logistics vehicles (SI ICEVs), compression-ignition direct-injection internal combustion engine logistics vehicles (CIDI ICEVs), and EVs. This study fills a research gap regarding the energy consumption and environmental impact of logistics vehicles in China.

Implementation Strategies for Sustainable Vehicle Fleet Management

Abstract Research purpose. Against the backdrop of climate change, pressure is growing in the transport sector to reduce CO2 emissions. Numerous companies are therefore setting specific targets to curb the CO2 emissions of their own vehicle fleets. As a rule, this requires the replacement of combustion vehicles by vehicles with alternative drives. In addition to the selection of suitable technologies, economic aspects play a prominent role in this transformation process. Based on a practical case study, potential implementation strategies for achieving a specific CO2 target are to be examined for a parcel service provider. The focus here is on a fleet of diesel combustion vehicles from the small van class with a permissible total weight of fewer than 3.5 tons, which are to be replaced by vehicles with electric drive (BEV) in order to achieve a specific CO2-savings target. The research objective can be easily extended if one considers, on the one hand, that climate protection cannot be limited to individual countries but has to take place on a global level and, on the other hand, that sustainable strategic planning of vehicle fleets also concerns other vehicle segments, such as company cars for individual transport or trucks with higher permissible gross weights. Design / Methodology / Approach. In the first step, framework conditions and criteria are defined that are needed for an evaluation of the implementation strategies. In the second step, a practical case study is constructed. In the third step, different scenarios and strategies for the conversion of the vehicle fleet are designed in order to achieve the set CO2-emission targets. In the last step, the economic and ecological effects of the different strategies and scenarios are measured and analysed with the help of the calculation tool "DIPO-tool", which was developed at the Ludwigshafen University of Business and Society LUBS for research and teaching purposes. To evaluate sustainability, in addition to the established metrics for Tank-to-Wheel (TtW) and Well-to-Wheel (WtW), a holistic life cycle approach is implemented that takes into account emissions during vehicle production. Findings. Against the backdrop of expected further technological development and numerous parameters with a considerable leverage effect on economic and ecological evaluation criteria, it seems advisable from the point of view of sustainability to use alternative drives as soon as possible. From the point of view of economic efficiency, a more differentiated picture emerges depending on the framework conditions, e.g., subsidies. Originality / Value / Practical implications. The originality of the approach lies in the application of a practical case study and the attempt to reduce the complexity of the decision problem by using an Excel-based calculation tool. The value of the study lies in the realisation that, due to the complexity, a simple optimisation approach does not seem viable but rather the evaluation and analysis of different scenarios. The practical impact can be described in the sense that the used DIPO-tool can provide effective support for sustainable implementation strategies for vehicle fleets.

Impact of powertrain electrification on the overall CO2 emissions of intercity public bus transport: Tenerife Island test case

The adoption of plug-in electric buses are seen as a promising alternative to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the public transport system. Although from an operational point of view this type of vehicles are zero-emissions, the upstream phase contribution can be considerably high in regions with high carbon grid intensities.This paper presents a simulation study to evaluate the energy consumption and the corresponding well-to-wheels (WTW) CO2 emissions of conventional diesel, parallel hybrid and battery electric buses. The test case is the island of Tenerife, an isolated power system highly dependent on fossil-fuels for power generation. Validated models of the aforementioned propulsion architectures were simulated over five representative cycles, covering city and intercity lines with noticeable differences in terms of driving behaviour, distance and gradient. Although battery electric buses present energy consumption reductions of 70% compared to conventional powertrains, the large carbon grid intensity of the island has a negative effect on their potential to reduce WTW CO2 emissions. The results evince that parallel hybrids provide the largest benefit to abate WTW CO2 emissions, reaching a reduction figure of 38% compared to its conventional diesel counterpart.

Multisectoral drivers of decarbonizing battery electric vehicles in China.

China has made great progress in the electrification of passenger cars, and the sales of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) have exceeded 10%. We applied a life-cycle assessment (LCA) method to estimate the carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions of the past (2015), present (2020), and future (2030) BEVs, incorporating China's carbon peaking and neutrality policies, which would substantially reduce emissions from the electricity, operation efficiency, metallurgy, and battery manufacturing industries. BEVs can reduce cradle-to-grave (C2G) CO2 emissions by ∼40% compared with internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) on the national-average level in 2020, far more significant than the benefit in 2015. Improved BEV operating efficiency was the largest factor driving emission reductions from 2015 to 2020. Looking forward to 2030, China's BEVs equipped with nickel-cobalt-manganese (NCM) batteries can achieve a further 43% of CO2 emissions reductions, among which 51 g km-1 of reduction is from the well-to-wheels (WTW) stage majorly owing to the further cleaner electricity mix, while other vehicle-cycle benefits are mainly from the advancement of battery (12 g km-1) and related metal materials (5 g km-1). We highlight the importance of better material efficiency and synchronized decarbonization through the automotive industrial chain in promoting climate mitigation from transport activities.