Well-off Families Research Articles

ВЛИЯНИЕ СЕМЕЙНОЙ СИТУАЦИИ НА ПРОЯВЛЕНИЕ НАСИЛИЯ В ШКОЛЕ

Statement of the problem. The article examines the relationship between the well-being of the family and various forms of violence against a child at school (psychological, physical, sexual violence). The study involved 227 adolescents (131 girls, 96 boys) aged 11 to 18 years. Although in the mass consciousness, well-being is usually associated with the presence of both parents in a family, the data call this statement into question. A big role is played by the family environment: the presence of alcohol or drug addiction in among family members, shouting, fighting, threats. The purpose of the article is to provide the results of an empirical study that allows us to identify the relationship between the family situation and the level of violence that a child faces at school. Research methods. The ICAST-C (International child abuse screening tool – children version) questionnaire was used as part of this study. Research results. Children from disadvantaged families are 2–6 times more likely (depending on the type and form of violence) to suffer from violence at school than children from well-off families. This may be due to the fact that children transfer behavioral patterns and social roles fixed in the family to school. Conclusion. According to our research, up to half of all children are exposed to violence at school and at home. Violence at school, in general, is 2–3 times more common among children from disadvantaged families. Teachers and parents often consider physical punishment as a necessary and effective means of controlling children’s behavior. Cases of psychological violence, such as insults, spreading rumors, bullying, and shouting, are not uncommon at school. A number of factors that provoke school violence can be identified: the functioning of the school directly depends on economic, political, social, cultural traditions and trends in the development of society; the presence of an authoritarian and directive management style in school; the general psycho-emotional background of school is characterized by a high level of anxiety of both teachers and students. These reasons undoubtedly make a significant contribution to the problem of school violence, while school violence is conditioned by the peculiarities of the child’s family and family relations. Patterns of violent behavior are undoubtedly formed in the family, and then transferred to the school situation, to relationships among children.

Build Back Better': Building School-Community Partnerships for Vulnerable Students During the COVID-19 Pandemic

The COVID-19 pandemic has affected many students around the world. The Indonesian government responded with school closures and the transition into distance learning. However, the Ministry of Communication and Information announced that there were 12,548 villages which did not have internet access and that electronic devices were unavailable for students from less well-off families. This study aimed to employ a non-empirical research methodology to highlight the importance of carrying out non-technological educational strategies by forming partnerships between schools and communities in vulnerable communities. The model of school-community partnership was carried out by forming small study groups in a neighborhood. Learning was assisted by teachers and volunteer tutors. This learning innovation was formed to provide equal opportunities for vulnerable students who were unable to perform online learning. Through such approaches we can rebuild education for those who were left behind as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic.
 Keywords: community engagement, COVID-19, school partnership, vulnerable student

Which Students Benefit from Independent Practice? Experimental Evidence from a Math Software in Private Schools in India

This study is one of the first evaluations of independent (i.e., self-guided) practice in math in a developing country. We randomly assigned 4,461 students in grades 4–7 in “unaided” private schools across seven Indian cities who were using a computer-assisted learning software to: (a) a control group, in which they moved from one unit to the next upon completion; or (b) a treatment group, in which they had to complete practice exercises before progressing to the next topic. After six months, the additional practice had a precisely estimated null effect on the math achievement of the average student. However, treatment students with low initial performance outperformed their control counterparts by 0.14 standard deviations (SDs). Our results suggest that independent practice may help private-school students from relatively well-off families in need of catching up with their peers.

Prevalence and factors associated with intimate partner violence and related injuries in India: evidence from National Family Health Survey-4

ABSTRACT Violence against women perpetrated by the partner is a serious human rights violation and public health concern. This study examines the prevalence and factors associated with intimate partner violence (IPV) and related injuries in India using data from the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-4), 2015–2016. We found that 27.4% of women experienced physical violence, 12% faced emotional violence, and 6.7% suffered from sexual violence perpetrated by the partner. Additionally, around one in every four women (24.5%) were subjected to violence-related injuries. Multivariable regression results show that alcohol consumption by couples, history of family violence, child marriage, and longer marital duration increased the likelihood of intimate partner violence and related injuries. Women who belonged to Muslim and Scheduled Caste communities and were employed had significantly more likelihood to experience husband-perpetrated violence than their counterparts. Contrastingly, women residing in rural areas, belonging to economically well-off families, and having higher levels of education and decision-making autonomy were associated with lower odds of intimate partner violence and injuries. This study underscores the need for prioritizing girls’ education, promoting gender equality, and enforcing strict actions against the perpetrators to prevent the act of violence.

Who all access private coaching in higher education and how much do they spend? Evidence from India

Using the latest National Sample Survey (NSS) education round data, we examine the patterns and determinants of demand and cost of private coaching in higher education in India. Two-step Heckman selection equation results find that students with better household resources (rich and educated) are more likely to take private coaching and tend to spend more on it. Results show that not only pro-male gender discrimination is in existence; there is also caste inequality in the demand and cost of private coaching, with a higher marginal effect among poor households. The study establishes that the market of shadow education, which by its very nature, is highly selective and delivers the service largely to the students of socially and economically well-off families. This article provides a rationale to consider the dynamics of inequalities in access to private coaching while devising educational policies, for making higher education egalitarian.

Ambitious and Anxious

In this new publication, Syracuse University Associate Professor Yingyi Ma employs a mixed-method research design to examine and analyze the educational motivations, experiences, and trajectories of a new wave of Chinese undergraduate students from diverse family backgrounds with an emphasis on “the duality of ambition and anxiety” (p. 7). This book challenges the stereotyped expectations of Americans in regards to Chinese students (for instance, that all are from well-off families and have poor English skills). Ma argues that it is pivotal to consider the educational, social, and cultural backgrounds of Chinese internationals in their processes of self-formation in order to have a well-rounded and diverse understanding of Chinese undergraduate students

Психолого-педагогическая программа, направленная на коррекцию агрессивных форм поведения и формирование навыков эффективного взаимодействияс окружающим миром у детей 5–7 лет «Тепло и свет сердец»

The psychological and pedagogical program belongs to the direction of psychological correction of behavior and developmental disorders of students. In this particular version, the program is aimed at correcting aggressive forms of behavior and the formation of skills for effective interaction with the outside world in children 5–7 years old. The program “Warmth and Light of Hearts” is designed for the age category of senior preschool children with a period of implementation of 6–6.5 months. This program is intended for preschoolers with both normal physical and intellectual development, and with the peculiarities of psychophysical development. In addition, the program can be used to work with aggressive children, both from well-off and disadvantaged families and families in difficult life situations. The relevance and timeliness of the program lies in a purposefully developed and positively regulated mechanism for responding and correcting aggressive, destructive behavior in pre-school children, taking into account their individual characteristics and social developmental situation. The period of preschool childhood is the most favorable for the formation of the necessary mental functions and socially significant personality traits. In preschool age, the prerequisites for the formation and formation of a personality are laid, therefore, it will be especially important and timely to help children whose aggressiveness is at an early stage, i.e. in preschool age. Correctional work will be most effective if it is carried out simultaneously with consulting and training work with the family. The originality and effectiveness of the program lies in the fact that it includes not only correctional and developmental classes with children, but also child-parenting classes, training seminars for parents aimed at harmonizing child-parent relations, which plays an important role in correcting children’s aggressiveness. The main emphasis in the program is placed on the formation of social skills and competencies in children. In the classroom, preschoolers are given the opportunity “Here and Now” to try to overcome the vital problems for them, as well as to master effective ways of solving them.

Prevalence and factors which influence early antenatal booking among women of reproductive age in Tanzania: An analysis of data from the 2015-16 Tanzania Demographic Health Survey and Malaria Indicators Survey.

Early initiation of the antenatal clinic is vital as it allows early detection, management, and prevention of problems that may occur during pregnancy time. The analysis aimed to determine the prevalence and factors which influence early antenatal booking among women of reproductive age in Tanzania. The study used data from the 2015-16 Tanzania Demographic and Health Survey and Malaria Indicators Survey (2015-16 TDHS-MIS). A total of 6924 women of active reproductive age from 15 to 49 were included in the analysis. Both univariate and multiple regression analyses were used to determine predictors of early antenatal booking. Only 1586 (22.9%) of pregnant women had early antenatal booking. After adjusted for the confounders, factors which influenced early antenatal booking were age of a woman [20 to 34 years, Adjusted Odds Ratio (AOR) = 1.554 at 95% Confidence Interval (CI) = 1.213-1.993, and more than 34 years, AOR = 1.758 at 95% CI = 1.306-2.368]; wealth status [rich, AOR = 1.520 at 95% CI = 1.282-1.802]; education level [higher education, AOR = 2.355 at 95% CI = 1.36-4.079]; parity [Para 2 to 3, AOR = 0.85 at 95% CI = 0.727-0.994 and Para 5+, AOR = 0.577 at 95%CI = 0.465-0.715]; zones [Unguja, AOR = 0.433 at 95% CI = 0.284-0.658 and Pemba, AOR = 0.392 at 95% CI = 0.236-0.649]. Early antenatal booking in Tanzania is extremely low. Women who were more likely to initiate antenatal visits within the first 12 weeks are those from well-off families, those with higher education, primiparity women, and those from Tanzania mainland urban. The innovative interventional study is highly recommended to come up with an effective strategy to improve timing for antenatal booking.

Deviations in psycho-sexual development of teenage girls and its legal consequences in modern society

IntroductionWhen studying the multiple aspects of the problem of criminal offences of a sexual character committed by adult males towards teenage girls, the role of digital communication technologies is not taking into account.ObjectivesTo reveal the negative aspects of social and family connections and the influence of digital communications on the formation of deviations in psycho-sexual development of teenage girls who had become victims of sexual delicts of a non-violent character.MethodsWe have studied the specifics of psycho-sexual behavior of seventeen teenage girls, aged 12-16 and their Internet and SMS correspondence with adult males by analysis of semantics and pathos-psychological markers.ResultsIntellectually, all the teenage girls are within normal age limits. They were bringing up in full, materially well-off families. Most of the girls’ parents experience a formal attitude towards them. The disrupted emotional ties of the teenage girls with mother or both parents leads to deviations in the development of normal teenage reactions, sexual attitudes. Their feeling of loneliness within the family, forces them to turn towards support to Internet-society or other adults of the opposite sex to their parents’ acquaintances. The desire to ascertain perfectionist expectations and self-assertion leads the teenagers to the realization of various forms of auto-destructive sexual behavior. They actively demonstrate in the Internet obscene photos of their genitals. While trying out their sexual importance, they persistently urge adult males towards sexual contacts.ConclusionsThus, the negative aspects of psycho-sexual development of teenage girls can disrupt their sexual behavior in adulthood.DisclosureNo significant relationships.

The Effects of Campus Shooting on School Finance and Student Composition

Between 1999 and 2018, 210 shootings have occurred on public school campuses in the United States. Campus shootings call for increased investments in security and student support, which may crowd out instructional resources. Exposure to shootings may also cause students, especially those from socioeconomically advantaged backgrounds, to move away from those schools and neighborhoods, leading to declines in enrollment. Both changes in the budget allocation and the student composition could exert a negative impact on achievement. This study first examines the effects of public school shootings on school districts’ revenue, expenditure, debt, and staffing using a long panel of district-year data. Results from event study and difference-in-differences analyses indicate that shootings increase per-pupil spending by about $248, which is funded primarily through increased federal transfers. Most spending increases occur in noninstructional functions, such as pupil support services, and capital projects, but they do not crowd out instructional spending. Then using school-level data, we show that shootings are followed by a decline in enrollment, driven almost exclusively by the response of students who do not receive free- or reduced-price lunch. Private schools in the area also experience a drop in enrollment. In sum, despite the increased intergovernmental transfers, campus shootings reduce the desirability of the community and lead to the exit of relatively well-off families.

Height, Chest Size, and Household Composition in Late-Nineteenth-Century Catalonia

AbstractThis article measures the impact of early-life household composition on adult height and chest size in men born in Catalonia in the late nineteenth century. It combines data from military drafts with census records, observing the same individual twice over his lifetime. For family composition characteristics I control for the number of siblings, intergenesic interval, parental occupation and educational level, fatherless or motherless families, and other relatives living in the household. I show that taller individuals were more likely to come from well-off families and that men who grew up in orphanages or in motherless households were shorter than their counterparts. Results also uncover that there was a negative association between height and the number of siblings and the age gap between them. However, this negative association is driven by having more brothers (instead of sisters). If we are to gain a fuller understanding of the factors that have influenced height, we need to consider the composition of the household as an explanatory variable.

Status and determinants of enrollment and dropout of health insurance in Nepal: an explorative study

BackgroundCompared to other countries in the South Asia Nepal has seen a slow progress in the coverage of health insurance. Despite of a long history of the introduction of health insurance (HI) and a high priority of the government of Nepal it has not been able to push rapidly its social health insurance to its majority of the population. There are many challenges while to achieve universal health insurance in Nepal ranging from existing policy paralysis to program operation. This study aims to identify the enrollment and dropout rates of health insurance and its determinants in selected districts of Nepal.MethodsThe study was conducted while using a mixed method including both quantitative and qualitative approaches. Numerical data related to enrollment and dropout rates were taken from Health Insurance Board (HIB) of Nepal. For the qualitative data, three districts, Bardiya, Chitwan, and Gorkha of Nepal were selected purposively. Enrollment assistants (EA) of social health insurance program were taken as the participants of study. Focus group discussions (FGD) were arranged with the selected EAs using specific guidelines along with unstructured questions. The results from numerical data and focus group discussions are synthesized and presented accordingly.ResultsThe findings of the study suggested variation in enrollment and dropout of health insurance in the districts. Enrollment coverage was 13,545 (1%), 249,104 (5%), 1,159,477 (9%) and 1,676,505 (11%) from 2016 to 2019 among total population and dropout rates were 9121(67%), 110,885 (44%) and 444,967 (38%) among total enrollment from 2016 to 2018 respectively. Of total coverage, more than one-third proportion was subsidy enrollment—free enrollment for vulnerable groups. The population characteristics of unwilling and dropout in social health insurance came from relatively well-off families, government employees, businessman, migrants’ people, some local political leaders as well as the poor class families. The major determinants of poor enrollment and dropout were mainly due to unavailability of enough drugs, unfriendly behavior of health workers, and indifferent behavior of the care personnel to the insured patients in health care facilities and prefer to take health service in private clinic for their own benefits. The long maturation time to activate health service, limited health package and lack of copayment in different types of health care were the factors related to inefficient program and policy implementation.ConclusionThere is a high proportion of dropout and subsidy enrollment, the key challenge for sustainability of health insurance program in Nepal. Revisiting of existing HI policy on health care packages, more choices on copayment, capacity building of enrollment assistants and better coordination between health insurance board and health care facilities can increase the enrollment and minimize the dropout.

Distributional effects of reducing energy subsidies: Evidence from recent policy reform in Argentina

We analyze the distributional effects of the reduction in energy subsidies in Argentina since 2016. As the policy reform also includes the introduction of a scheme to protect less well-off families (social tariff), we also review how well the targeting mechanism works. We apply traditional benefit-incidence analysis using household surveys and administrative data, focusing on residential subsidies to piped natural gas and electricity in the Buenos Aires Metropolitan Area. We find that the social tariff is relatively pro-poor, with significantly higher coverage among the poorest households. There are some exclusion errors in the low-income deciles and large inclusion errors in the medium- and high-income deciles. The distributive incidence of subsidies does not appear to have changed substantially. Energy subsidies in Argentina (albeit lower in aggregate terms) continue to be, although progressive, pro-rich. This is in large part due to the prevalence of the general flat subsidy rate mechanism over the social tariff mechanism. Regarding energy budget shares, monthly spending on electricity has increased from 1.1% of total household income to 3.4%. Monthly spending on piped natural gas rose from 1.3% to 3.3%. These shares are in line with many other countries in the region. Naturally, there has been a convergence of tariffs towards service provision costs, which becomes central in order to incentive sectoral investment and stimulate a good provision of services. • Energy subsidies in Argentina increased tenfold as a share of GDP between 2005 and 2014 • We study the distributional impact of the energy subsidy reduction • A flat subsidy rate concurs with a targeted social tariff to protect the vulnerable • Post-reform subsidies remain pro-rich due to the prevalence of the flat subsidy rate • In addition, the social tariff has large exclusion and inclusion errors

Opportunities to Access to General Education of Children Living in Poverty Families in Ethnic Minority in Vietnam Nowadays

Education is a basic right of people and everyone has the right to access to education. The right is stated in Clause 1, Article 26 of 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). In Vietnam, the Constitution passed by the National Assembly of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam in 2013 also stipulates that education is a right of people and the State, families and the society must protect, take care of and educate children. To ensure children’s right to access to education as well as to enable them to access to learning opportunities, Vietnam has promulgated many policies to create favorable conditions for all children in education, especially those from poor families and ethnic minority families in the past years. However, compared to children from well-off families, children from poor families in ethnic minority regions still face difficulties in education. Based on statistics, this article focuses on analyzing the opportunities to access to general education of children from poor families in ethnic minority regions in Vietnam nowadays.

The Image Of IAIN Padangsidimpuan Among High Achievement Students (Educational Services Marketing Perspective)

The presence of students in a tertiary institution is an absolute requirement that must be met. IAIN Padangsidimpuan applies three different types of selection of new student candidates. These include the National Academic Achievement Selection (Seleksi Prestasi Akademik Nasional/SPAN - PTKIN), the State Islamic College Entrance Examination (Ujian Masuk Perguruan Tinggi Agama Islam Negeri/UM - PTKIN), and Independent Exams. SPAN - PTKIN is intended to recruit prospective new students from high achieving students. However, many prospective students who passed the SPAN-PTKIN pathway did not re-register again. This condition occurs almost every year. SPAN - PTKIN is intended to recruit prospective new students from high achieving students. However, many prospective students who passed the SPAN-PTKIN pathway did not re-register. This condition occurs almost every year. This has led to the presumption that there is a tendency for prospective new students from high achieving students through the SPAN-PTKIN pathway to have low interest in continuing education at the Padangsidimpuan IAIN. So it needs to be investigated how the actual image of IAIN Padangsidimpuan among high achieving students and other related aspects. This is important as input for improving the selection system for prospective new students or making decisions in the planning of promotion strategies for Padangsidimpuan IAIN in the future. This research is a descriptive quantitative research. The population of this study was all high achieving students at the State High School / Islamic High School level in Padangsidimpuan City. The main instrument was a questionnaire distributed to 220 respondents, which were selected by purposive sampling technique. Data analysis was performed by t-test and ANOVA. Data processing is done by SPSS software. From the results of data processing, it is known that the overall Iangs Padangsidimpuan imagery among Padangsidimpuan City achievers is included in the "good" category, with a value of 3,2353 from the maximum scale of 5. The t test results are known that, the Islamic High School students' point of view regarding the image of IAIN Padangsidimpuan is better than state school students. Therefore, it is necessary to do more frequent promotion to the state schools. From the ANOVA test results it is known that there is actually no difference in the image of the IAIN Padangsidimpuan between groups of respondents from different family classes. This indicates that IAIN Padangsidimpuan does not need to differentiate promotion methods for students from economically well-off families, middle class, or poor families.

Recasting Food

This study is an ethnographic enquiry into the pre-school Supplementary Nutrition Programme (SNP), in India’s western Gujarat state. The broad objective was aimed at understanding the institutional barriers and sociological process that had led to the exclusion of families and children under the age of six from the SNP. This study was undertaken because despite enthusiastic State investment in human resources and food funding, the uptake of SNP was poor. The study method involved multi-sited ethnographies conducted in four rural villages of Gujarat. The research concluded that caste and religious identities shaped dominance and control, restriction of social interactions, and food commensality. The authors situate these compelling findings within the broader discourse of food as a process of ‘othering,’ and stigmatised identities as they relate to consumption of ‘polluting’ food, the symbolic role of food when coupled with caste, and association of religion with food. Observations of SNP delivery sites suggest that spatial and moral dimension of societal caste conflicts directly influence local ‘biologies’ by reproducing and amplifying such tensions in the Anganwadi health centres. Crucial symbolic and cultural markers of food, nutrition, distribution, and consumption are rendered invisible to official health providers resulting in failure of the SNP programme. Current research on global health advocating ‘scaling up of models’ is an ethical violation if it glosses local ecologies that shape poor uptake of SNP by the affected communities.

Contemporary Elitism in Higher Education in the United States: An Issue Scan

This paper outlined the competitive nature of the admissions process of elite schools of higher education in the United States. Highly selective colleges and universities perpetuate social elitism through legacy preferences in admissions, low acceptance rates, and keeping tuition rates steep. Students who attend selective schools for higher education predominately self-identify as being of high socioeconomic status. Admission angst has increased for non-legacy applicants, as fewer spots are available for admittance because of legacy preference. The affluent parent views selective schools as an exclusive brand to validate and perpetuate class status. Wealthier families can afford to send their children to elite K-12 schools, provide tutors and enrichment activities, all to better position their child to eventually attend a highly selective college or university. Elite schools use a meritocratic system to identify the brightest and most talented students, yet most applicants selected for admission are from well-off families.

Реактивная модернизация национальной школы: пандемия COVID-19 как вызов системе среднего образования

The COVID-19 pandemic has forced the global school system to face an unusual set of circumstances. As the pandemic threat grew, schools around the world were closed throughout March 2020 to prevent the virus from spreading. Although school closures have been announced as a temporary measure, prolonged closures could cause significant disruption to the education ecosystem, affecting an estimated 1.5 billion students in 165 countries. It is now clear that this situation will have a lasting impact on the social, emotional and mental health of children and adolescents, as well as on overall learning outcomes, which may widen the gap between children from well-off and disadvantaged families. The use of alternative channels for delivering learning information to which not everyone still has access will further widen the gap. The pandemic has forced the education system to focus on developing health and safety requirements and conditions, in the new environment, rapid and flexible responses and solutions to minimize the impact on learning in the short and long term. All of this responds to the challenges of the pandemic, which we will explore in more detail in the text below.

Dietary Adequacy Among Young Children in India: Improvement or Stagnation? An Investigation From the National Family Health Survey.

This study assessed the trend of minimum acceptable dietary practices among children aged 6 to 23 months in India in the past decade. Data collected in the National Family Health Survey during 2005 to 2006 (NFHS-3) and 2015 to 2016 (NFHS-4) were used. The sample size for this study was 11 727 children for NFHS-3 and 61 158 children for NFHS-4. Bivariate and multivariate analyses were done to identify the predictors of feeding practices. We analyzed data of last-born singleton children aged 6 to 23 months who were living with their mother (ever-married women aged 15-49 years). In India, a low proportion (10%) of children aged 6 to 23 months received a minimum acceptable diet, and its estimate remained the same in the past 10 years. Older mothers, educated mothers, antenatal care, high economic status, and place of residence were the most consistent predictors of minimum acceptable dietary intake. Over the past decade, however, the minimum acceptable dietary intake has declined among older children (odds ratio [OR] = 0.57, 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.47-0.70; P < .001), children with overweight mothers (OR = 0.40, 95% CI, 0.31-0·50; P <.001), and children of well-off families (OR = 0.29, 95% CI, 0.23-0.37; P < .001). The odds for minimum acceptable dietary intake were significantly higher among children of high (4+) birth order (OR = 1.74, 95% CI, 1.41-2.15; P < .001), rural areas, and children living in the central, eastern, and north-eastern region. Results indicate the need for further investigations of poor dietary intake among children living in well-off families and in the northern region. This study suggests policymakers and program managers to address contextual barriers against minimum acceptable dietary intake among children and to reconsider existing strategies in India.

Do Well-off Families Compensate for Low Cognitive Ability? Evidence on Social Inequality in Early Schooling from a Twin Study

This article bridges the literature on educational inequality between and within families to test whether high–socioeconomic status (SES) families compensate for low cognitive ability in the transition to secondary education in Germany. The German educational system of early-ability tracking (at age 10) represents a stringent setting for the compensatory hypothesis. Overall, previous literature offers inconclusive findings. Previous research between families suffers from the misspecification of parental SES and ability, while most within-family research did not stratify the analysis by SES or the ability distribution. To address these issues, I draw from the TwinLife study to implement a twin fixed-effects design that minimizes unobserved confounding. I report two main findings. First, highly educated families do not compensate for twins’ differences in cognitive ability at the bottom of the ability distribution. In the German system of early-ability tracking, advantaged families may have more difficulties to compensate than in countries where educational transitions are less dependent on ability. Second, holding parents’ and children’s cognitive ability constant, pupils from highly educated families are 27% more likely to attend the academic track. This result implies wastage of academic potential for disadvantaged families, challenging the role of cognitive ability as the leading criterion of merit for liberal theories of equal opportunity. These findings point to the importance of other factors that vary between families with different resources and explain educational success, such as noncognitive abilities, risk aversion to downward mobility, and teachers’ bias.