Water Sprinkling Research Articles

Effects of paraffin external coating on the degradable flower pot made of sludge cake

ObjectivesThe researchers have tried to economically make a flower pot from sludge cake produced in paper mill industries for the purpose of decreasing its volume. The crude flower pot did not resist natural sprinkling of water or natural rain. The aims of this study were to clarify two hypotheses: (1) whether life time of a degradable flower pot on the ground would be prolonged or not by coating it with appropriate material, and (2) whether paraffin, material used for coating flower pot, would prevent the toxicity of sludge cake in it.MethodsSludge cake was mixed with soil. The circular plaster mold was used as a fixed mold. Three types of coating materials, paraffin wax, tapioca starch and modified tapioca starch were selected. Water durability test was performed with a water sprinkler. As the toxicological testing, leaching test and seed germination test were used using the paraffin-coated flower pot.ResultsIn the water durability test, the durability was different among types of the coated flower pot. Among them, the paraffin prolonged the life time of flower pot on the ground until 5 weeks at least and may be 8 weeks. The results of leaching test using the paraffin-coated flower pot showed that three heavy metals, lead, nickel and copper, were lower than the standard in Thailand, but the paraffin had no preventive effect on the leaching of the heavy metals from the sludge cake in the flower pot. The seed germination test showed no significant difference in the number of germination of Chinese kale and the length of its leaf from those grown in the plant soil, and suggested that the paraffin-coated flower pot seemed to have no suppressive effect on the seed germination of Chinese kale.ConclusionThe paraffin prolongs the life time of flower pot on the ground. Although it has no preventive effect on the toxicity of the sludge cake in the flower pot, the paraffin-coated flower pot seems to have no negative effect on the environment. This paraffin-coated flower pot has the possibility to reuse the sludge cake in the horticultural practice of growing the ornamental plant.

Assessment, Mitigation, and Control of Potential Gas Leakage in Existing Buildings Not Designed for Gas Installation in Indonesia

Operational activities of gas pipelines are associated with potential hazards and risks that can potentially lead to pipeline failure, including failure of the gas distribution pipeline in existing buildings. Unfortunately, few studies on risk analysis of the gas distribution pipeline in existing buildings have been published. Therefore, this study was conducted to provide a reference for analyzing the risk of pipeline leakage caused by small-scale leakage, large-scale gas release, and gas pipeline rupture in existing buildings in Indonesia not designed for gas installation. The study was performed using the event tree analysis method. The methodology of this study was initiated by identifying the scenario of the case of small-scale leakage, large-scale gas release, or gas pipeline rupture. Then, pivotal events were identified, an event tree diagram was constructed, the event failure of each pivotal event was determined, and the probability value of the outcome risk was calculated. The risk was evaluated in terms of fire, casualties, and gas released. The results of this study showed the highest risk in each scenario which can result in fire, severe casualties, and light poisoning. The highest risk in the small-scale leak scenario had a probability value of 1.5 × 10−3. In the large-scale gas release scenario, the highest risk had a probability value to incur a fireball, severe casualties, and light gas poisoning of 6.0 × 10−4. In the gas pipeline rupture scenario, the highest risk had a probability value of fireball, severe casualties, and light poisoning of 7.0 × 10−4. The probability value of each risk was reduced by the installation of a gas detector and water sprinkler as a barrier.

Modern approaches in new kiwifruit plantations in Turkey

Kiwifruit has been one of the most profitable fruit species in the orchard business in Turkey for more than 25 years. In Turkey, the volume of kiwifruit production is relatively lower than that in China, Italy, New Zealand, and Chile. However, Turkey is one of the top countries in the world in terms of production area. Most kiwifruit orchards are quite new. Furthermore, production is increasing every year. Clearly, quality will be much more important in the near future; therefore, kiwifruit growers will have to use modern techniques that will improve the quality of the fruits to ensure better taste. In the first few years, because of lack of technical knowledge, many kiwifruit orchards were run with incorrect systems. Nowadays, with improved knowledge, modern kiwifruit orchards have been started in different regions throughout Turkey. At the start, the yield was only 20-30 t ha‑1; however, in recent years, it has risen to 40-50 t ha‑1. Intensive use of fertigation and plant-growth regulators has contributed to increased yield. Ridge planting in groundwater and employing water sprinklers are methods used in modern orchards. An extensive mini-sprinkler system has been introduced to protect new orchards from frost. Also, the method of using a net system to cover the plants is gaining widespread adoption in Turkey. Growers are building artificial windbreaks using polythene fabric. A proper sanitary management plan would involve controlling the presence of Pseudomonas syringae pv. actinidiae (Psa) in kiwifruit orchards. In this ever-changing world, kiwifruit farming needs to use new cultivars, training systems, disease-, pest- and weed-control techniques, fertilization strategies and irrigation systems, which should be adapted to changes. Otherwise, it will fall to competition and lose its profitability. While cultivars are the obvious and visible innovations, improved production and postharvest systems are also important for the success of the orchard business. Therefore, when considering the increasingly competitive conditions in the orchard industry, all techniques must be applied as a holistic approach to ensure quality production.

Time Series Analysis of Surface Runoff and Surface Soil Erosion by Water Sprinkling Above the Canopy

Time Series Analysis of Surface Runoff and Surface Soil Erosion by Water Sprinkling Above the Canopy

Seismic Performance of a Fire-Exposed Moment-Resisting Frame

Major earthquakes in urban areas often lead to building fires. Such earthquakes frequently damage buildings’ water sprinkler systems and diminish or strain firefighting capabilities. In such scenarios, buildings get exposed to fire for a long period of time, resulting in damage of spray-on-fire resistive materials. Consequently, steel frame temperature may reach as high as the maximum fire temperature, which subsequently cools slowly to ambient temperature. If the building frame does not deform severely after such a fire event, it is usually rehabilitated for continued occupation. The performance of such a fire-exposed steel building during a future earthquake is not known. This study investigates the seismic performance of a fire-exposed steel frame by performing finite-element analyses incorporating fire-exposed steel material properties. The simulation responses demonstrate vulnerability of fire-exposed steel buildings. A novel but startling observation made is that under seismic loading, a fire-damaged steel frame may form a soft-story mechanism at the story of fire exposure because of plastic hinge formation in the column instead of in the beams.

Forest Fire Prevention Using WSN Assisted IOT

Internet of Things is the mainstay of the new era since its application becomes the future of day-to-day life. This work targets the IoT network assisted by WSN to prevent forest fire. We propose two-layer architecture of sensor network assisted by IoT enabled UAVs. The data flows in the proposed architecture in bottom-up fashion i.e., data is sensed by the nodes, which are deployed in the forest area (and sense temperature continuously). This data is transmitted to upper layer consisting of UAVs, which take appropriate action (to sprinkle water to bring temperature down to prevent fire). All the UAVs are interconnected to each other as well as to base station. The sensor nodes are clustered using two-step clustering algorithm, which takes care of the isolated nodes. The scheme has been equated to another WSN assisted IoT clustering technique. The proposed scheme outperforms the existing in terms of congestion at the UAV stations, number of alive nodes and remaining energy of the network.

Conceptual approach to the creation of “smart” sewerage system for city surface runoff

Creation of comfortable living conditions for people in urban areas it is requires the "smart" infrastructure, designed to divert surface runoff: rainwater, meltwater and sprinkling water. Organization of the deleting diffuse surface runoff from urban areas is one of the main sources of industrial pollution and degradation of the water bodies, located in the city. To reduce the anthropogenic impact on water bodies need in high-quality treatment of surface runoff during the year. The existing technological schemes for treatment the surface urban runoff, as it turned out, do not fully take into account changes in the quantity and quality of surface wastewater. This is associated with increasing the proportion of waterproof coverings in residential areas and the appearance of new types of anthropogenic pollution depending on the season. This report presents a conceptual approach to the development of a new local wastewater treatment plants is able to automatically change the parameters (time, intensity, dose and type of reagents, temperature, etc.), add or delete the necessary treatment stages with considering of quality seasonal changes of rainwater, sprinkling and melt waters. The results of the conducted researches allows to develop new technological schemes of surface runoff treatment on the basis of nature-like technologies taking, to determine the most effective methods and the main stages of treatment, choose the optimal composition of facilities and equipment, calculate the technological parameters of local treatment stations. New technological schemes provide the possibility of remote management and control.

KEBERADAAN TIRTHA SOLAS DI BANJAR GULIANG KANGIN DESA TAMANBALI KECAMATAN BANGLI KABUPATEN BANGLI (Kajian Filosofi)

<p><em>Religion has a very important role in human life. In actualizing the teachings of religion, Hindus use three basic teachings called the Tri Tri Framework Basic Hinduism, which consists of: Tattwa (Philosophy), Susila (Ethics), and Events. Water is a purification or cleansing in life so that the body becomes pure and clean. Water is a symbol of amertha (life) and water that keeps the body holy and clean. All ceremonial equipment must be purified with water sprinkling before the ceremony begins. The sprinkling of the holy water to the person or in the ceremony intends to gain health, peace (peace of mind), happiness. Water is thought to have the power to eliminate evil influences. Thus the importance of water in religious life, so that in all religious ceremonies can not be separated from the use of water (tirtha). In this research there are three problem formulation, among others 1) Tirtha Solas Function, 2) Meaning of Tirtha Solas, 3) society view about Tirtha Solas.</em></p><p><em>This research uses three theories namely function theory, symbol theory and religious theory. The function theory is used to dissect the problem of the function of Tirtha solas symbol theory to dissect the problem of Meaning of Titha solas. Religious theory dissects the problems of society's view of tirtha solas. This research uses qualitative descriptive method in advance researcher approach, identify problem, observation, research object, data collection, then analyzed descriptive qualitative to get general result or conclusion. The results of this study can be stated as follows: 1) the function of tirtha in Hindu ritual, the role of tirtha in religious ceremony is very important role 2) The meaning of tirtha solas as cleansing is as a media of self-cleansing and cleansing 3) Tirtha solas is trusted by citizen or society as a treatment medium. With the holy place tirtha solas in order to provide positive energy and purity within.</em></p><p><em> </em></p>

Hydrophobic Amino Acid Content in Onions as Potential Fingerprints of Geographical Origin: The Case of Rossa da Inverno sel. Rojo Duro.

In this study, we were interested in comparing the amino acid profile in a specific variety of onion, Rossa da inverno sel. Rojo Duro, produced in two different Italian sites: the Cannara (Umbria region) and Imola (Emilia Romagna region) sites. Onions were cultivated in a comparable manner, mostly in terms of the mineral fertilization, seeding, and harvesting stages, as well as good weed control. Furthermore, in both regions, the plants were irrigated by the water sprinkler method and subjected to similar temperature and weather conditions. A further group of Cannara onions that were grown by micro-irrigation was also evaluated. After the extraction of the free amino acid mixture, an ion-pairing reversed-phase high performance liquid chromatography-evaporative light scattering detector (IP-RP HPLC-ELSD) method allowed for the separation and detection of almost all the standard proteinogenic amino acids. However, only the peaks corresponding to leucine (Leu), phenylalanine (Phe), and tryptophan (Trp), were present in all the investigated samples and they were unaffected from the matrix interfering peaks. The use of the beeswarm/box plots revealed that the content of Leu and Phe were markedly influenced by the geographical origin of the onions (with *** p << 0.001 for Phe), but not by the irrigation procedure. The applied HPLC method was validated in terms of the specificity, the linearity (a logarithm transformation was applied for the method linearization), the limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ), the accuracy (≥90% for inter-day Recovery percentage), and the precision (≤10.51 for the inter-day RSD percentage), before the quantitative assay of Leu, Phe, and Trp in the onion samples. These preliminary findings are a good starting point for considering the quantity of the specific amino acids in the Rossa da inverno sel. Rojo Duro variety as a fingerprint of its geographical origin.

Experimental investigation on the influence of evaporative cooling of permeable pavements on outdoor thermal environment

Permeable pavements are effective in mitigating the urban heat island effect via evaporative cooling and have been widely used in south China. However, few studies focus on the impact of evaporative cooling of different permeable paving materials on the outdoor thermal environment. In this study, two widely used permeable paving materials, sintered ceramic porous brick (CB) and open-graded permeable concrete (PC) were investigated. First, partial immersion tests were performed to characterize the water absorption properties of these materials. The results indicated that CB had a higher water absorption rate and a larger water retaining capacity than PC. Then, field measurements were conducted to evaluate the evaporative cooling performance of these materials. The results indicated that (1) water absorption capacity has an important impact on the evaporative cooling effect of permeable materials, a high upward capillary force could maintain the hydraulic continuity over a long distance, thus effectively prolongs the first stage of evaporation, (2) sprinkling water could reduce the surface temperature of both CB and PC by up to 10 °C and lower the ratio of sensible heat flux to the net shortwave radiation of CB and PC to 13.12% and 29.62%, respectively, (3) compared to non-sprinkling conditions, the maximum air temperature above CB and PC could be decreased by up to 1 °C. Additionally, CB could lower the black globe temperature and wet-bulb globe temperature (WBGT) of 0.5 m by up to 3 °C and 2 °C after sprinkling, respectively, suggesting that sprinkling water can improve thermal comfort above pavements.

ТЕХНИЧЕСКАЯ МОДЕРНИЗАЦИЯ СИСТЕМЫ МЕЛИОРАЦИИ КАК РЕЗЕРВ ПОВЫШЕНИЯ ЭФФЕКТИВНОСТИ СЕЛЬСКОГО ХОЗЯЙСТВА

One of the little-used reserves to improve the efficiency of agriculture, through technical modernization, is the development of melioration. The most effective method of mechanized irrigation is sprinkling, which contributes to the greatest moisture penetration to plants. This method allows you to moisten the leaf surface, soil and ground layers of air, which saves in the dry period. Reducing the park of sprinkling equipment for a number of years led to a reduction in the area of irrigated land, and the operating machines were practically not used due to moral and physical deterioration, the lack of spare parts for repairs and high energy costs. The indicator of the use of sprinklers in the context of the region, in particular, by the agricultural producers of the Republic of Tatarstan in 2014, was 93 percent. At the same time, 13 districts of the region do not have irrigation machines. An application of sprinklers for the cultivation of crops in agriculture is economically justified and promising. The modernization of irrigation equipment should consist in replacing imported, expensive spare parts and parts with cheaper and produced in Russia, wide introduction of an open irrigation system with high efficiency, low energy consumption. To implement these measures, state support measures are necessary. At the same time, the approved mechanism of state subsidizing of machinery manufacturing plants is adopted with a lack of subsidies, which will lead to further development of the situation associated with the technical impoverishment of the agricultural sector. This assumption is proved by the forecast of the level of watering equipment in the Russian Federation until 2020, which takes into account the current trends in the development of a sprinkler park and watering machines and plants.

Performance analysis of modified solar still with forced water circulation

This work is aimed to enhance the evaporation rate of water in the basin and the condensation rate of water vapour on the glass cover of a solar still. The evaporation rate is enhanced by supplying more solar thermal radiation and the condensation rate of water vapour is improved by removing more thermal energy from the glass cover. For enhancing the evaporation rate of water, the evacuated tubes were integrated with the stepped basin to increase the water surface area exposed to solar radiation. The internal and external reflectors reflect solar radiation on the water of the stepped still basin and inside the evacuated tubes. The forced water circulation maintains the thin film of water on the basin. Water sprinkling on the glass cover removed more thermal energy from it. As a result, the condensation rate was high. Comparisons between the modified stepped solar still with conventional solar still was carried out to evaluate the performance under the same climatic conditions. The productivity of the modified stepped solar still with reflectors and sprinkled glass cover cooling was 8660 mL per day.

Effect of terrain slope on water distribution and application uniformity for sprinkler irrigation

In order to provide practical parameters for sprinkler irrigation system design on slope land, the effects of terrain slope on water distribution, sprinkler throw radius and water application uniformity were analyzed for the Rainbird LF1200 sprinkler. The results show that, the water distribution curve is roughly “heart-shape” on slope land, and the water has the trend of focusing on the upslope with the increase of the slope. Throw radius decreases for the upslope and increases for the downslope as the slope increases. For the convenience of sprinkler irrigation system design on slope land, a formula for computing throw radius on slope land was put forward by the theoretical derivation, and it was verified by the experimental data. The impact of sprinkler pressure and spacing on CU for slope land is more significant than that for flat ground. Under the experimental condition, no significant change is found regarding the influence of terrain slope on water application uniformity at the confidence level of 95%. Taking irrigation quality and economy into account, the Rainbird LF1200 sprinkler should be operated at the manufactures’ recommended pressure, rather than low pressure, with sprinkler spacing from 8 m×8 m to 10 m×10 m below the slope of 0.15 in practice. Keywords: sprinkler irrigation, slope land, water distribution, water application uniformity, throw radius DOI: 10.25165/j.ijabe.20181103.2901 Citation: Zhang L, Hui X, Chen J Y. Effects of terrain slope on water distribution and application uniformity for sprinkler irrigation. Int J Agric & Biol Eng, 2018; 11(3): 120–125.

Design and Implementation of Fire Extinguisher Robot with Robotic Arm

Robot is a device, which performs human task or behave like a human-being. It needs expertise skills and complex programming to design. For designing a fire fighter robot, many sensors and motors were used. User firstly send robot to an affected area, to get live image of the field with the help of mobile camera via Wi-Fi using IP camera application to laptop. If any signs of fire shown in image, user direct robot in that particular direction for confirmation. Fire sensor and temperature sensor detects and measures the reading, after confirmation robot sprinkle water on affected field. During extinguish process if any obstacle comes in between the prototype and the affected area the ultrasonic sensor detects the obstacle, in response the robotic arm moves to pick and place that obstacle to another location for clearing the path. Meanwhile if any poisonous gas is present, the gas sensor detects and indicates by making alarm.

&lt;b&gt;Assessing different holding pen cooling systems through environmental variables and productivity of lactating cows

This studyaimed to assess different holding pen climatization systems for dairy cattle through environmental variables, milk production and economic indexes. Sixteen lactating cows were used, distributed in a 4 x 4 Latin square design consisting of four groups of four animals, assessed in four periods, seven days each, and in four holding pen environments: SUN– external environment (in the sun), SHA– 80%-protection polypropylenemesh shading, SHA + SPR– 80% polypropylene mesh shading + water sprinkling, SHA + SPR + VEN – 80% polypropylene mesh shading + water sprinkling + ventilation. The animals remained for 30 minutes in their respective environments. In this period, environmental variables were collected using data loggers, and the milk produced, in kg, by each animal was subjected to the treatments. Fixed and variable costs were calculated for economic analysis. The SHA + SPR + VEN treatment presented itself as the best environment (p &lt; 0.05), promoting an increase in the milk produced by the cows and in themonthly income, with 44 days for return on investment.

Assessing different holding pen cooling systems through environmental variables and productivity of lactating cows

This studyaimed to assess different holding pen climatization systems for dairy cattle through environmental variables, milk production and economic indexes. Sixteen lactating cows were used, distributed in a 4 x 4 Latin square design consisting of four groups of four animals, assessed in four periods, seven days each, and in four holding pen environments: SUN– external environment (in the sun), SHA– 80%-protection polypropylenemesh shading, SHA + SPR– 80% polypropylene mesh shading + water sprinkling, SHA + SPR + VEN – 80% polypropylene mesh shading + water sprinkling + ventilation. The animals remained for 30 minutes in their respective environments. In this period, environmental variables were collected using data loggers, and the milk produced, in kg, by each animal was subjected to the treatments. Fixed and variable costs were calculated for economic analysis. The SHA + SPR + VEN treatment presented itself as the best environment (p < 0.05), promoting an increase in the milk produced by the cows and in themonthly income, with 44 days for return on investment.

The Impact of Thermal Runaway on Sprinkler Protection Recommendations for Warehouse Storage of Cartoned Lithium-Ion Batteries

This study investigates the appropriateness of applying the standard large-scale fire test protocol developed for ordinary combustibles for energetic batteries. A large-scale fire test was recently conducted to determine sprinkler protection guidance for warehouse storage of lithium-ion batteries. The specific battery tested had a 20 Ah capacity, polymer pouch format, lithium iron phosphate chemistry and was at a typical state-of-charge (50%) for long-term storage. The batteries were packaged in single-wall corrugated containerboard cartons on hardwood pallets, as received from the supplier. Each carton contained 20 batteries separated by nested polystyrene plastic dividers. Acceptable ceiling-level sprinkler protection was achieved for 4.6 m (15 ft) tall rack storage under a 12.2 m (40 ft) ceiling using K-Factor of 320 L/min/bar½ (22.4 gpm/psi½), quick-response, sprinklers at a discharge pressure of 2.4 bar (35 psig). The effect that thermal runaway of the Li-ion batteries had on the design and outcome of the large-scale fire was evaluated. A focus was placed on the role of thermal runaway during three stages of the fire; ignition leading to sprinkler operation, active sprinkler protection, and conditions after the sprinkler system was turned off. An external ignition source was used in cases where induced thermal runaway, which refers to rapid self-heating of a battery under abuse conditions, did not lead to combustion of the battery contents. Through a combination of experiments and review of literature data, it was found that thermal runaway within a pallet load of cartoned batteries would result in a similar fire hazard as that associated with external ignition scenarios typically used in large-scale fire testing. Regardless of chemistry, evidence shows that fire propagation beyond the battery or carton of origin occurs external to the carton due to limited available air within the carton to support combustion. In addition, intermediate-scale testing showed that sprinkler water would be effective at suppressing a fire at a later stage of battery involvement than was achieved in the large-scale test. This work reinforces the sprinkler protection guidance resulting from the successful large-scale fire test.

Why Dalit?

Why do some people consider others "untouchable"? Why do upper caste people sprinkle water to purify themselves when touched by a Dalit?This documentary film explores the caste system in Nepal as it is experienced by lower castes - the Dalit - and upper caste people. Through the words of Dalit, the film reveals many of the paradoxes in the upper caste based discrimination, like: why are the shoes made by the Sarki lower caste people allowed into the house when the person who made the shoes cannot enter?The Dalit are not one homogenous group of people, but a common denominator for a variety of lower caste people living in Nepal. The film moves from the hill regions in West Nepal to the Terai in the south and put focus on different Dalit castes, their living circumstances within the Nepalese caste system and the Dalits' migration from the hill regions to the Terai in the hope of making a better living.In 1990 the practice of caste-based discrimination was declared illegal and punishable by law in Nepal. But the caste system still forms an essential part of the cultural landscape.

Rainwater propagation through snowpack during rain-on-snow sprinkling experiments under different snow conditions

Abstract. The mechanisms of rainwater propagation and runoff generation during rain-on-snow (ROS) events are still insufficiently known. Understanding storage and transport of liquid water in natural snowpacks is crucial, especially for forecasting of natural hazards such as floods and wet snow avalanches. In this study, propagation of rainwater through snow was investigated by sprinkling experiments with deuterium-enriched water and applying an alternative hydrograph separation technique on samples collected from the snowpack runoff. This allowed us to quantify the contribution of rainwater, snowmelt and initial liquid water released from the snowpack. Four field experiments were carried out during winter 2015 in the vicinity of Davos, Switzerland. Blocks of natural snow were isolated from the surrounding snowpack to inhibit lateral exchange of water and were exposed to artificial rainfall using deuterium-enriched water. The experiments were composed of four 30 min periods of sprinkling, separated by three 30 min breaks. The snowpack runoff was continuously gauged and sampled periodically for the deuterium signature. At the onset of each experiment antecedent liquid water was first pushed out by the sprinkling water. Hydrographs showed four pronounced peaks corresponding to the four sprinkling bursts. The contribution of rainwater to snowpack runoff consistently increased over the course of the experiment but never exceeded 86 %. An experiment conducted on a non-ripe snowpack suggested the development of preferential flow paths that allowed rainwater to efficiently propagate through the snowpack limiting the time for mass exchange processes to take effect. In contrast, experiments conducted on ripe isothermal snowpack showed a slower response behaviour and resulted in a total runoff volume which consisted of less than 50 % of the rain input.

Parametric study on flow dispersion of water sprinkle

Although water sprinkler is used extensively in agriculture, little effort had been made to improve its performance, resulting in many sprinkler head available at market having less optimum design. Thus, this study aims to improve the basic design of water sprinkler head by conducting a parametric study on the effect of model geometry due to different flow characteristics. A common type of water sprinkler is modelled with computer aided design software and various changes such as enlarging nozzle diameter from 4mm to 8mm, changing vane angle from 70 degrees to 45 degrees are made to the original model. The models were simulated with computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software to investigate how the variation in geometry affects the flow of water and the performance of sprinkler head. The performance of water sprinkler is compared to original model in terms of watering distance, area of spray and velocity of water jet in air. The result of this study shows that enlarge the nozzle diameter have a positive effect on the velocity of water jet in air and the area covered by water jet but it drastically decreases the watering distance of sprinkler. Besides that, changing the angle of vane from 70 degrees to 45 degrees decrease the watering distance slightly and it concentrates the water into a fine jet that cover a small area. To reduce the effect, grooves can be added to the vane to increase the divergence of water spray. Reducing the angle of curvature from 10 degrees to 5 degrees improves the watering distance. The angle of curvature can be reduced more to increase the watering distance further.