Type Of Water Source Research Articles

An outbreak of Ralstonia insidiosa bloodstream infections caused by contaminated heparinized syringes

IntroductionRalstonia insidiosa, a gram-negative waterborne bacteria able to survive and grow in any type of water source, can cause nosocomial infections, and are considered emerging pathogens of infectious diseases in hospital settings. In this study, we report an outbreak of R. insidiosa at our center related to contaminated heparinized syringes. Material and methodsThe present study was conducted in a tertiary care university hospital in Turkey. An outbreak analysis was performed between September 2021 and December 2021. Microbiological samples were obtained from environmental sources and from patient blood cultures. Species identification was performed using matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS). To investigate the clonality of strains, all confirmed isolates were sent to the National Reference Laboratory and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) was used to perform molecular typing. ResultsSeventeen R. insidiosa isolates were identified from the blood cultures of 13 patients from various wards and intensive care units. Isolates from seven patient blood cultures and two heparinized blood gas syringes were characterized by PFGE. All isolates were found to belong to the same clone of R. insidiosa. ConclusionR. insidiosa was identified as the cause of a nosocomial infection outbreak in our hospital, which was then rapidly controlled by the infection-control team. When rare waterborne microorganisms grow in blood or other body fluid cultures, clinicians and the infection-control team should be made aware of a possible outbreak.

Decay process of free residual chlorine concentration affected by travel time in water distribution systems

Chlorination is the most widely used method for disinfecting water for human consumption. While the chlorinated water travels through a distribution system, the concentration of free residual chlorine (FRC) declines depending on the natural water characteristics. This study investigated FRC decay in two types of water sources – ground and surface water – with varied concentrations of organic compounds. The travel time variable depended on water consumption patterns of both distribution systems which attend low density populations and their initial project needs. Based on mathematical simulation techniques of water quality models, the study also investigated the effects of water temperature and total organic carbon (TOC) on the kinetic constants (kb) of chlorine decay. Results show that travel time in the most critical locations in the water networks and the minimum disinfectant concentrations required at the entry points were 40 hours and 0.27-0.28 mg L-1 at Vale dos Pássaros housing complex, and 144 hours and 0.30-0.36 mg L-1 at Terras Alphaville housing complex.
 Keywords: disinfection, TOC, water quality.

Valuable resources in water: Why and how to recover?

Water is a key element of the global water-energy nexus and a crucial foundation of economic globalization. Water, as an essential resource for humans, carries diverse valuable and scarce resources. Mining these resources from the water will be of significance for material flows of resources, which will substantially accelerate a transition to sustainable and circular economies. Compared with conventional water sources, various unconventional water sources such as seawater, brines, and industrial waste streams are considered economically nonviable, yet still worthy of extraction. Mining water, energy, valuable nutrients, minerals, metals, and chemical products from these sources is valuable and viable. There is a growing need for introducing innovative technologies, processes, models, and systems to effectively extract, reclaim, and reuse resources from diverse types of water sources. There also demands a comprehensive techno-economic analysis, assessment of life-cycle impacts, and benchmarking of these new technologies against their traditional counterparts.

Faktor risiko kejadian diare pada anak balita (12-59 bulan) di Puskesmas “X” Kota Jambi

Background: Diarrhea is the second major contributor to morbidity and mortality of toddlers in various countries, including Indonesia. Diarrhea in toddlers has also occurred in Jambi Province. In 2019, Tahtul Yaman Primary Health Care was one of the Primary Health Care in Jambi City with the highest incidence of diarrhea. The study aimed to determine the risk factors associated with diarrhea in toddlers (12-59 months) in Tahtul Yaman Primary Health Care in Jambi City.
 Methods: The study used a case-control study design with 70 participants, consist of 35 cases and 35 controls taken by quota sampling. The dependent variable in this study was the incidence of diarrhea, and the independent variables were food sanitation, exclusive breastfeeding, vitamin A, Complete Basic Immunization, type of water source, and toilet facilities. Data were analyzed using a chi-square test for bivariate and regression logistic for multivariate analysis. 
 Results: The multivariate analysis showed that relationship between food sanitation (OR=3,591; 95% CI=1,186-10,877), complete immunization status (OR=4,110; 95% CI=1,281-13,182), and toilet facilities (OR=6,051; 95% CI=1,291-28,365) with diarrhea. While factors unassociated were exclusive breastfeeding (OR=1,324, 95% CI=0,467-3,750), vitamin A (OR=1,477, 95% CI=0,541-4,032), type of water source (OR=1,304, 95% CI=0,474-3,590 ).
 Conclusion: Food sanitation, complete immunization status, and toilet facilities as risk factors for the incidence of diarrhea. A dominant factor that affected the incidence of diarrhea in children aged 0-59 months was the toilet facilities.

Prevalence and predictors of water-borne diseases among elderly people in India: evidence from Longitudinal Ageing Study in India, 2017–18

BackgroundIndia suffers from a high burden of diarrhoea and other water-borne diseases due to unsafe water, inadequate sanitation and poor hygiene practices among human population. With age the immune system becomes complex and antibody alone does not determine susceptibility to diseases which increases the chances of waterborne disease among elderly population. Therefore the study examines the prevalence and predictors of water-borne diseases among elderly in India.MethodData for this study was collected from the Longitudinal Ageing Study in India (LASI), 2017–18. Descriptive statistics along with bivariate analysis was used in the present study to reveal the initial results. Proportion test was applied to check the significance level of prevalence of water borne diseases between urban and rural place of residence. Additionally, binary logistic regression analysis was used to estimate the association between the outcome variable (water borne diseases) and the explanatory variables.ResultsThe study finds the prevalence of water borne disease among the elderly is more in the rural (22.5%) areas compared to the urban counterparts (12.2%) due to the use of unimproved water sources. The percentage of population aged 60 years and above with waterborne disease is more in the central Indian states like Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh followed by the North Indian states. Sex of the participate, educational status, work status, BMI, place of residence, type of toilet facility and water source are important determinants of water borne disease among elderly in India.ConclusionElderly people living in the rural areas are more prone to waterborne diseases. The study also finds state wise variation in prevalence of waterborne diseases. The elderly people might not be aware of the hygiene practices which further adhere to the disease risk. Therefore, there is a need to create awareness on basic hygiene among this population for preventing such bacterial diseases.

GEOLOGICAL AND GEOPHYSICAL CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING THE MINERAL AND GEOTHERMAL WATERS FROM THE RAMNICU VALCEA - GOVORA AREA

For understanding of complex geological and geophysical phenomena, regarding the mineral and geothermal waters, we must base on the whole of knowledge and available data for the study area. The input data include: digital terrain models, geological and geophysical maps, sections, drill-holes and geological interpretation, for assemble together into the same space data from various sources, in order to ensure geometrical coherence. Also, the database includes measurements of deuterium (δD (‰)) and overall salt content (∆d (mg/l)) expressed as the difference in density between a distilled water taken as a standard and water sample. Are important to take into account the geology 'boundary' data (geology contacts, interfaces and limits), the deep geology and processing/filtering of geophysical data with properly algorithms. The type of filtering of gravimetric and magnetic data must be chosen based on the depth of the model we want to get. This is necessary because the values of the geophysical parameters recorded at the surface of the terrain contain weighted average information from both the surface and from different depths, even to the base of the Lithosphere. In this paper we made some geological and geophysical considerations regarding the mineral and geothermal waters from the Ramnicu Valcea - Govora area. The types of water sources targeted are mineral springs, boreholes and surface water in the area

Sociodemographic inequalities in uranium and other metals in community water systems across the USA, 2006–11: a cross-sectional study

SummaryBackgroundThe US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) currently sets maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) for ten metals or metalloids in public drinking water systems. Our objective was to estimate metal concentrations in community water systems (CWSs) across the USA, to establish if sociodemographic or regional inequalities in the metal concentrations exist, and to identify patterns of concentrations for these metals as a mixture.MethodsWe evaluated routine compliance monitoring records for antimony, arsenic, barium, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, mercury, selenium, thallium, and uranium, collected from 2006–11 (2000–11 for uranium; timeframe based on compliance monitoring requirements) by the US EPA in support of their second and third Six-Year Reviews for CWSs. Arsenic, barium, chromium, selenium, and uranium (detectable in >10% records) were included in the main analyses (subgroup and metal mixture analyses; arsenic data reported previously). We compared the mean, 75th percentile, and 95th percentile contaminant concentrations and the percentage of CWSs with concentrations exceeding the MCL across subgroups (region, sociodemographic county-cluster, size of population served, source water type, and CWSs exclusively serving correctional facilities). We evaluated patterns in CWS metal concentration estimate profiles via hierarchical cluster analysis. We created an online interactive map and dashboard of estimated CWS metal concentrations for use in future analyses.FindingsAverage metal concentrations were available for a total of 37 915 CWSs across the USA. The total number of monitoring records available was approximately 297 000 for arsenic, 165 000 for barium, 167 000 for chromium, 165 000 for selenium, and 128 000 for uranium. The percentage of analysed CWSs with average concentrations exceeding the MCL was 2·6% for arsenic (MCL=10 μg/L; nationwide mean 1·77 μg/L; n=36 798 CWSs), 2·1% for uranium (MCL=30 μg/L; nationwide mean 4·37 μg/L; n=14 503 CWSs), and less than 0·1% for the other metals. The number of records with detections was highest for uranium (63·1%). 75th and 95th percentile concentrations for uranium, chromium, barium, and selenium were highest for CWSs serving Semi-Urban, Hispanic communities, CWSs reliant on groundwater, and CWSs in the Central Midwest. Hierarchical cluster analysis revealed two distinct clusters: an arsenic–uranium–selenium cluster and a barium–chromium cluster.InterpretationsUranium is an under-recognised contaminant in CWSs. Metal concentrations (including uranium) are elevated in CWSs serving Semi-Urban, Hispanic communities independent of location or region, highlighting environmental justice concerns.FundingUS National Institutes of Health Office of the Director, US National Institutes for Environmental Health Sciences, and US National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research.

Characterization of reported legionellosis outbreaks associated with buildings served by public drinking water systems: United States, 2001-2017.

This study examined 184 legionellosis outbreaks in the United States reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's Waterborne Disease and Outbreak Surveillance System, from 2001 to 2017. Drinking water characteristics examined include source water type, disinfectant type, exposure setting, geographical distribution by U.S. Census Divisions, and the public water system size (population served). This study found that most of the reported drinking water-associated legionellosis outbreaks occurred in eastern United States, including 35% in the South Atlantic, 32% in the Middle Atlantic, and 16% in the East North Central Census Divisions were linked with building water systems in healthcare and hotel settings; and were associated with buildings receiving drinking water from public water systems serving >10,000 people. Targeted evaluations and interventions may be useful to further determine the combination of factors, such as disinfectant residual type and drinking water system size that may lead to legionellosis outbreaks.

Prevalence and Factors Associated with Cryptosporidium Infection in Calves in and around Nekemte Town, East Wollega Zone of Ethiopia.

Purpose Cryptosporidiosis, caused by a protozoan parasite of the genus Cryptosporidium, is a zoonotic disease that affects young animals and humans. The study was conducted from October 2020 to May 2021, with the objectives of estimating the prevalence of Cryptosporidium infection in calves and assessing the associated risk factors in Nekemte town, Ethiopia. Methods A cross-sectional study was adopted during the study period. Initially, 35 dairy farms were selected using a systematic study approach from which a total of 384 calves under the age of 12 months (75 calves from intensive, 51 from semi-intensive, and 258 from extensive dairy farms) were selected purposively for fecal sample collection. Fecal samples were collected directly from the rectum of each calf and tested for Cryptosporidium oocysts using Sheather's flotation and a modified Ziehl–Neelsen staining procedure. The data were analyzed using STATA statistical software version 13. Results Cryptosporidium infection was found in 53 of the 384 calves investigated, with an overall prevalence of 13.8% (95% CI = 8.1–17.6). Logistic regression analysis on the risk factors showed that types of farm, age, body condition scores, fecal consistency, types of feed, source of water, and farm hygiene were found to have a statistically significant influence on the shedding of Cryptosporidium oocysts by the calves (p < 0.05). Calves under the age of six months had a higher likelihood (OR = 2.7, 95% CI = 1.0–4.2, p < 0.001) of shedding the oocysts than the calves of 6 to 12 months of age. It was also confirmed that calves with poor body condition scores had a higher likelihood (OR = 2.6, 95% CI = 1.2–3.7, p=0.024) of shedding the Cryptosporidium oocysts than other ones. The likelihood of shedding a Cryptosporidium oocyst by the diarrheic calves was higher than by the nondiarrheic ones (OR = 3.1, p < 0.001). The infection was 2.6 times highest (16.8%, 31/185, 95% CI = 14.5–19.1, OR = 2.6, p=0.028) in calves feeding on grass alone, followed by milk and grass (15%) and milk (4.2%). Similarly, it was 2.2 times higher (18.5%, OR = 2.2, and p=0.002) in calves drinking river water than in calves drinking tap water. Moreover, calves kept under poor hygiene were more likely to shed Cryptosporidium oocysts (OR = 2.8, p=0.001) than calves kept under good hygiene. Conclusion In conclusion, cryptosporidiosis is one of the health problems of calves in and around Nekemte town, East Wollega zone. Our findings confirmed that risk factors such as types of farm, age, body condition scores, fecal consistency, types of feed, water source, and farm hygienic status were found to have a significant effect on the occurrence of Cryptosporidium infection in the calves. While the molecular-based study is required to be carried out aiming at species identification and the epidemiology of the parasite, particular attention should be paid to the control of the disease in the study area.

Human Health Risk Assessment due to Heavy Metals in Ground and Surface Water and Association of Diseases With Drinking Water Sources: A Study From Maharashtra, India.

Contamination of freshwater sources can be caused by both anthropogenic and natural processes. According to Central Pollution Control Board, Maharashtra along with 2 other states, contribute 80% of hazardous waste generated in India, including heavy metal pollution. Hence, it is important to quantify heavy metal concentrations in drinking water sources in such areas. Water samples were analyzed for toxic elements (F, As, Cd, Hg, Pb, Ni, Cu, Zn, Mn, and Cr) using Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) Agilent 7500. Health risks due to ingestion and dermal contact was assessed. A total of 557 people were randomly selected, with consumers from all 4 types of water sources that is surface water, hand pump, wells, and municipal water. Spot urine samples were collected from 47 people after considering inclusion and exclusion criteria. Urine was collected for estimating mercury and arsenic levels in the study participants. Arsenic contributes the most health risk from ingestion from water. Among surface water users, 14 people (32%) reported frequent loose stool (P-value < .05) (OR 2.5), and 11 people (23%) reported frequent abdominal pain (OR 1.9). Hand pump and well water users reported frequent abdominal pain (27%) (OR 1.4) and gastric discomfort (31%) (P-value < .05) (OR 3) respectively. The mean value of urinary Hg and As were 4.91 ± 0.280 and 42.04 ± 2.635 µg/L respectively. Frequent loose stool, gastric discomfort, and frequent abdominal pain were associated with the various sources of drinking water. Urine Hg levels were found higher than the NHANES (USA) Survey. It is recommended that frequent monitoring of drinking water should be enforced around the industrial hub, so that appropriate actions can be taken if present in excess.

РАСЧЕТ ПАРАМЕТРОВ КОНТУРА УВЛАЖНЕНИЯ ПРИ КАПЕЛЬНОМ ПОЛИВЕ КАРТОФЕЛЯ

Based on the results of the research, a methodology for calculating the irrigation rate was compiled, taking into account the parameters of the moistening circuit, the characteristics of soil conditions and the general mineralization of irrigation water. Hydrocarbonate calcium waters predominate in the Central region, the total mineralization varies widely depending on the time of year and the type of water source. It is proved that this parameter affects the nature and rate of formation of the irrigation contour. The technique was tested at the experimental site of the Field Experimental Station of the RGAU-MAA named after C.A. Timiryazev when growing early ripe potatoes of the «Udacha» variety. Irrigation water savings amounted to 16%. The application of the proposed method for calculating the irrigation rate, taking into account the shape of the moisture contour and its geometric parameters, depending on soil conditions and mineralization of irrigation water, will fully reveal the advantages of drip irrigation in saving irrigation water and preventing its filtration into deep soil layers.

Development of a geoinformation atlas of the sanitary and chemical state of water sources in the arid region

The paper considers the development of a geoinformation atlas of the sanitary and chemical state of water sources in the arid region on the example of the Saratov region. The atlas summarizes the results of sanitary and chemical monitoring of surface and underground water sources in the Saratov region. Graphs of content of priority pollutants excess, as well as non-carcinogenic risk and hazard index for 2015-2021 are summarized in the form of an information map of a water source linked to its geographical coordinates. The atlas file system includes four blocks, each of which summarizes information about the hygienic condition of one of the types of water sources: springs, wells, small rivers, and sampling points on the Volga River. Atlas data can be derived using landscape models that allow to link the spatial position of a water source with the characteristics of its chemical composition, as well as output data in the form of a altitude diagram. The ratio between sanitary and hygienic indicators in dynamics can also be visualized in the form of diagrams. The atlas may be of interest to specialists in the field of preventive medicine and employees of research organizations dealing with environmental hygiene.

Living with Landslides: Perceptions of Risk and Resilience in Far West Nepal

This study presents an analysis of risk and resilience perceptions in two villages of Far West Nepal, Sunkuda and Bajedi, located in the upper Karnali River Basin. The area has been affected by deep-seated and shallow landslides, which have had a devastating impact on many rural lives and livelihoods. While both villages are exposed to landslides, Bajedi is situated in a higher risk zone. Using structured surveys, semi-structured interviews and insights from stakeholder workshops, the risk and resilience perceptions of household residents of the two villages are elicited. The objectives of the study are 1) to understand how residents perceive their risk and resilience to landslides, and 2) to provide evidence and insights on the factors that influence risk perception. Results show that landslides are perceived as an existential risk in both villages, although risks are perceived as more serious in Bajedi. The higher risk perception in Bajedi is shown to be mainly driven by households’ ability to cope, including their energy sources, whether they know whom to call in case of a landslides, as well as household savings and income sources. In Sunkuda, risk perception is shown to be influenced by households’ access to and status of community forests, expenditure on medication, the seasonality and types of water sources, and ethnicity. In both villages, additional drivers of risk perception include households’ social networks, their perceived triggers of landslides, their outstanding loans, and who collects the water. The results demonstrate the interconnectedness of risk perception and indicators of resilience. By elucidating the risk perception of Sunkuda and Bajedi, this study has important implications for local risk management strategies and policies.

Work site access to fluoridated tap water and retail beverages: An assessment of the University of California, San Francisco campuses

BackgroundEmployees with fluoridated drinking water access at work can reap oral health benefits. The purpose of this study was to assess the availability, appeal, and promotion of fluoridated tap water in publicly accessible spaces compared with retail beverages at the University of California, San Francisco. MethodsThe authors collected information on beverages available in publicly accessible spaces at University of California, San Francisco hospitals and campuses in San Francisco, California, from December 2019 through February 2020 using a web-based survey tool. Data collected included fluoridated water and retail beverage locations; type of water or retail beverage source; number of water sources per station; cleanliness, flow, and any obstruction of water sources; proximity of water stations to retail beverage locations; signage near the beverage locations about water and beverage consumption; and type of retail beverages available. ResultsFluoridated water stations were identified in 230 locations and had 377 water sources (for example, traditional drinking fountain and motion-sensor bottle-filling station). One water station was available for every 80 students and employees; however, 25% were obstructed, dirty, or had unsatisfactory flow. Approximately 1 in 5 watercoolers lacked disposable cups. Of 41 retail beverage locations identified, 29% had a water station within sight. Only 11% of beverage locations had signage encouraging healthier beverage choices. ConclusionsA systematic assessment of work site access to fluoridated water can provide actionable evidence to improve availability, appeal, and promotion. Practical ImplicationsThis study provides a model to assess work site availability of fluoridated drinking water that can be used for future evaluations.

Evaluation of online and inline emitters clogging with treated waste water and groundwater

Clogging is a serious problem in drip irrigation, especially under applied groundwater (Gw) and treated wastewater (TWW). This Clogging may uneven water distribution, and the regularity of this distribution decreases due to the emitter clogging. Laboratory tests were conducted with fresh water to evaluate the system under several applied pressures (40, 80,100,120,140,180,200 kPa) and two types of emitters (online with discharge 2 L/h and in line with discharge 8 L/h). A field experiment was also conducted from May to December 2020 at the experimental farm of the college of agricultural engineering sciences, Sulaimani University to monitor clogging of two types emitters and two types of water resources. The objectives of this study, were to evaluate the temporal changes of the emitter discharge rate and the rating of clogged emitters in the system and to quantify the effect of emitter clogging on irrigation system performance. In the experiments, two types of emitters and two types of water sources (treated wastewater and groundwater) were evaluated by measuring the emitter discharge rate of the system at seven -days intervals. Assessment time were (0, 14, 28, 42, 56, 70, and 84 hours). The water source had a very significant effect on the degree of drip emitter clogging. Of the two emitters tested during the entire trial period, emitters apply a more severe flow of Treated wastewater clogging, Results showed that the clogging percentages were 76.92% and 80.61% with inline emitter in use Groundwater and Treated wastewater and 29.76% and 26.76% with the online emitter when using Groundwater and Treated wastewater respectively.

IODINE STATUS IN SCHOOL CHILDREN AND DISTRIBUTION OF IODINE, MERCURY, LEAD IN SOIL AND WATER IN THE ENDEMIC GOITER HILL AREA, PONOROGO

Background. Iodine deficiency disorders (IDD) remained a public health problem. Ponorogo was an IDD endemic area with prominent cases of mental retardation. Despite the lack of iodine intake, exposure to environmental heavy metals can exacerbate the effects of iodine deficiency. Objective. To describe iodine status of school children and distribution of environmental iodine and heavy metals including mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), and cadmium (Cd) in the endemic IDD hill area of Ponorogo. Method. This research is a cross-sectional study conducted in two villages in IDD endemic areas in Ponorogo, namely Dayakan and Watubonang villages, in 2011. A total of 127 urine samples of primary-school-age children were taken and analyzed for urinary iodine excretion (UIE). A total of 29 soil samples and 87 water samples were taken from the study site to measure the concentration of iodine and heavy metals Hg, Pb, and Cd. Types of water source, altitude, and land use, both soil and water source were recorded. Results. The median (min-max) UIE was 130 (14 –1187 µg/L) within the range of adequate population iodine intake according to WHO (100-199 µg/L), while the percentage of UIE &lt;100 µg/L was still around 33.07 percent. The concentration of iodine in the soil was 33.777 mg/kg (6.640 –108.809), and the concentration of iodine in the water was 8.0 µg/L (0-49). The concentration of Hg in the soil was 68.64 ppb (7.43–562.05), and the concentration of Hg in the water was 0.00 ppb (0.00-23.24). The concentration of Pb in the soil was 3.273 ppm (0.000–25.227), while Pb was not identified in the water. The Cadmium was not detectable both in the soil and water. Conclusion. Iodine deficiency is still a public health problem in Dayakan and Watubonang villages. The environment of the endemic IDD area in Ponorogo was not completely poor in iodine, but iodine was not evenly spread and mobilized. There was a risk of environmental heavy metal exposure from Hg in the soil or water and Pb in the soil. Mercury in the environment can cause health problems due to the inhibition of the use of iodine in the thyroid gland.

Nanofiltration for drinking water treatment: a review.

In recent decades, nanofiltration (NF) is considered as a promising separation technique to produce drinking water from different types of water source. In this paper, we comprehensively reviewed the progress of NF-based drinking water treatment, through summarizing the development of materials/fabrication and applications of NF membranes in various scenarios including surface water treatment, groundwater treatment, water reuse, brackish water treatment, and point of use applications. We not only summarized the removal of target major pollutants (e.g., hardness, pathogen, and natural organic matter), but also paid attention to the removal of micropollutants of major concern (e.g., disinfection byproducts, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, and arsenic). We highlighted that, for different applications, fit-for-purpose design is needed to improve the separation capability for target compounds of NF membranes in addition to their removal of salts. Outlook and perspectives on membrane fouling control, chlorine resistance, integrity, and selectivity are also discussed to provide potential insights for future development of high-efficiency NF membranes for stable and reliable drinking water treatment.

Factors associated with prevalence of diarrhea among children under five years of age in Pakistan

ObjectivesThe study aimed to identify the determinants of childhood diarrhea in Pakistan with a specific focus on water, sanitation, hygiene, and mother’s decision-making ability. MethodsThis study is based on nationally representative Demographic and Health Survey of Pakistan. The working sample is 3,067 children. Bi-variate and multi-variate logistic regressions are used to estimate the unadjusted and adjusted odds ratios of the determinants of diarrhea, respectively. ResultsIn bivariate regression, type of water source i.e., tube well/bore has significantly lower odds [OR = 0.85, 95 CI = 0.76–0.96] of diarrhea among children of age less than five years compared to piped water. Although, this variable is not significant in the multivariate model. Though, the variable of toilet type, Flush to Septic Tank, is significant in multivariate analysis with the odds of [OR = 0.77, 0.59–0.99] meaning that odds of household with a flush to septic tank type of toilet observe 23 percent less diarrhea compared to households with piped to sewer type of toilet. Moreover, the presence of a handwashing facility is an insignificant predictor of diarrhea. In a household where a mother does not make health-related decisions, a child is significantly likely to have diarrhea [OR = 1.25, 95% CI = 1.12–1.39]. Although, this association is lost in multivariate regression analysis. ConclusionThe results show that mothers should be empowered to make their health-related decisions, as children of empowered mothers are less susceptible to diarrhea. Similarly, the findings suggest that WASH interventions are likely to work better if they target multiple WASH sectors instead of focusing on one of the components, as children with access to multiple improved WASH components are less likely to get diarrhea as compared to the children who have access to one of them.

Presence of Arsenic in Potential Sources of Drinking Water Supply Located in a Mineralized and Mined Area of the Sierra Madre Oriental in Mexico.

Mine wastes from the La Aurora mine in the state of Guanajuato were generated by the flotation process and placed in four tailing dumps on the local stream while the plant operated. Given that these wastes contain toxic elements, it is important to establish their impact on the quality of several surrounding natural sources of water that are considered potential drinking water supplies. This study identified four water source types, in which the contents of arsenic (As), mercury (Hg), and thallium (Tl) were exceeded, according to international guideline values for drinking water quality. The first type of aqueous sample corresponded to leachates produced by rainwater infiltration in tailings and water–mineral waste interactions. The second type corresponded to surface water along the Xichú and La Laja Streams, and the third and fourth types involved two groundwater well samples and spring samples, respectively. The Chiquito Stream was used as a reference area that had not been impacted by the mine wastes. The isotopic signatures associated with δ34Ssulfate and δ18Osulfate compositions from the El Ojo de Agua spring are similar to those of the Santa María River and are different from those of the mine waste leachates. This study shows evidence of the presence of As in the El Ojo de Agua spring, which results from dissolution of secondary mineral phases that were produced by alteration of the mine wastes, which then migrated along the Xichú Stream system until reaching the spring. These As-bearing fine particles are prone to dissolution when in contact with this water source. Principal component analysis revealed that the observed As, Tl, and Hg can be attributed to weathering of the mine wastes. However, the results suggest that a natural contribution of these elements could be associated with rainwater–igneous rock interactions.

Investigation about wetting ability (surface tension) of water used for preparation of pesticide solutions

The investigation about surface tension of water used for preparation of pesticide solutions reveals it is quite diverse and changeable without any logical correlation towards location, time, and type of water source. Moreover, spraying with solutions with lower surface tension give bigger flow rates due to the lower resistance of fluid to the nozzles. The conducted trials show that plant surfaces with more rough texture require to be sprayed with pesticide solutions with lower surface tension. The wax content of the surfaces has no significant impact on surface tension requirement.