Waste Animal Research Articles

Bioinspired Synthesis of Novel Different Nanoparticles and its Utility in Biodiesel and Animals Applications

Because of its ability to speed up the reaction, the catalyst is critical to its success. Most catalysts are either homogeneous or heterogeneous. It has been shown that utilizing a heterogeneous catalyst, which is easier to remove from the product after the reaction has been finished. Because of the large surface area of the Nano-catalyst results in high catalytic efficiency. To enhance the performance of catalysts a range of various types of support materials have been used. SO42--ZnO and So42-/TiO active acid catalyst was prepared and characterized. ZnO nanoparticles catalyst synthesized by precipitation of zinc nitrate for comparison with supported catalyst. Sulphated zinc oxide (SO42--ZnO) and sulphated titania (SO42-/TiO) catalysts were synthesized using impregnation methods, to test their efficacy in biodiesel production. Various waste oils from different wastes such as mutton or beef tallow, chicken fat, and methanol are preferred to use during the esterification of waste animal fat oils using solid acid catalysts to produce biodiesel. Biodiesel synthesis generates a substantial amount of glycerol as a byproduct. Effect of optimum parameters such as temperature 60 degree centigrade (°C) shown 90% yield, time 1 hour resulted in 85% yield, catalyst dose 2wt% resulted in 80% yield, stirring speed 250rpm resulted in 80% yield, methanol to oil ratio12:1 resulted as 85.5% yield for transesterification of waste fat oil. It is valuable that the supported acid catalysts showed more yield than simply synthesized ZnO nanocatalyst similarly sulphated zinc oxide showed more FAME yield than sulphated titania.

Waste to Energy: Combustion, Performance, and Emission Characteristics of Waste Animal Fats/Diesel Blends Premixed with Various Alcohols as Port Fuels

AbstractAnimal flesh is a major food source with economic and industrial value for consumer demand. These meats produced biowaste during and after preparation and use. Chicken intestines make up most of the waste thrown away after processing or frying. This study considers it a biodiesel source. Transesterification turns chicken intestine waste fat oil into biodiesel. This oil is used in compression ignition (CI) engines but performs poorly compared to diesel. Diesel, the base fuel, is mixed with 20% biodiesel. The remaining 10% and 20% of butanol and pentanol are port fuels, improving combustion and lowering emissions in the 5.2 kW, 1500 rpm CI engine. 20% pentanol premixing outperformed butanol premixing, blending, and engine CIWFOB operation. The greater heating value improves combustion, therefore 20% pentanol premixing with blend produces 32.76% BTE, 10.57% more than diesel. It produced 55.18% less CO and 50.92% less smoke than diesel, which has a greater heat release rate (48.86 J/CAD) and peak pressure (64.76 bar). This premixing costs NOx emissions. The CIWFOB blend with 20% pentanol premixing improves engine performance. For SDGs 7, 9, 12, and 13, this study is supported.

Assessment of Waste Animal Fats (WAFS) Biodiesel Production Potential as an Alternative Fuel for Zambia: A Case Study of Southern Province

The volatility in global fuel prices and the desire to reduce energy dependency on fossil fuels has necessitated the speeding up of alternative energy supply sources. Coupled to this is the global urgent need to reduce the accumulation of CO2 and green house gas (GHG) emissions as a result of fossil fuels production and use. Further, the mandate by united nations to move towards sustainably produced energy for the transportation, and power generation demands that we seek energy solutions that meet reduced negative impact on the environment. It is in this regard that this study seeks alternatives in waste animal fats (WAFs) biodiesel as an option that could meet the ever increasing demand for fossil fuel in the transport sector and power generation. For the transport sector and power generation , the biodiesel maybe blended with the fossil diesel in the approved ratios as stipulated by the Energy Regulation Board and the Zambia Bureau of Standards to help mitigate the net GHG and CO2 emissions. The biodiesel production in this study was based on the modified two-step process. These two steps involved passing the feedstock through esterification using sulphuric acid as catalyst and there after base catalysed using sodium hydroxide in a process referred to as transesterification. The resulting products in the esterification process are the esters and water whilst in the transesterification are the biodiesel and glycerol. The feedstock used are those of waste animal fats (WAFs) of cattle, pig and chicken that has been discarded from meat processing and animal slaughter houses. The feedstocks have been carefully selected based on the animals raised in the country with a bigger slaughtered population as well as reared. The population of animals reared and slaughtered annually are obtained from the Zambia Ministry of Agriculture animal population census records. Based on these records, the preferred feedstock sources where obtained. The study further 1. explored the economic potential of the biodiesel production for the Zambian government and beyond. 2. compared some of the characteristics of WAF biodiesel to that of imported fossil diesel 3. affirmed that WAF biodiesel has a very good impact in reducing environmental pollution as WAF dumping to land fills and the cost of disposal is reduced. Also,WAF biodiesel is bio-degradable. Thus, moving closer to an effective sustainable development as required by the united nations sustainability goals if full scale production is implemented in Zambia.

Innovative Approaches in Biodiesel Production from Waste Cooking Oils and Waste Animal Fats

Innovative Approaches in Biodiesel Production from Waste Cooking Oils and Waste Animal Fats

Unraveling the role of black soldier fly larvae in chicken manure conversion: Facilitating maturation and enhancing humification

Black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) have garnered considerable attention for their efficacy in mitigating waste management challenges. However, their potential in treating antibiotics contaminated chicken manure remains uncertain. This study investigates the physicochemical properties changes and nutrient dynamics during the composting of contaminated-chicken manure using BSFL. The results indicate that BSFL treatment reduces electrical conductivity (by 6.01–58.09 %), organic matter, and dissolved organic carbon content in chicken manure throughout the composting process, while maintaining a more stable pH value (pH ∼ 6.0–8.0). This is attributed to the consumption of organic matter by BSFL and the subsequent promotion of organic acid formation. Additionally, BSFL treatment improves the degree of aromatization of dissolved organic matter (DOM) in chicken manure and increases the proportions of fulvic acid (up to 48.77 %) and humic acid (maximally 14.27 %) within the DOM. The germination index and pot experiments indicated improved compost maturity and plant growth in BSFL-treated composts. Furthermore, BSFL meal demonstrated high protein and essential fatty acid content, highlighting its potential as a protein supplement in animal feed. This study underscores the efficacy of BSFL in enhancing compost quality and nutrient availability, offering a sustainable solution for waste management and animal feed production.

The Growth Performance and Nutrient Composition of Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens) Larvae Fed Slaughtered Bovine Blood.

The disposal of slaughterhouse blood poses significant environmental challenges due to its biological instability and high nutrient content. We used a gradient of 10% blood increments (0-100%) to feed BSFL, and the correlation between the proportion of bovine blood and the BSFL weight gain, mortality rate, fatty acid content, and amino acid content was researched. Results indicate a positive correlation between the bovine blood content and BSFL mortality, with survival rates above 95% for blood proportions below 60%. Larval weight exhibited a negative correlation as the bovine blood content increased. Nutritional analysis revealed that the crude protein content in BSFL increased proportionally with bovine blood (14.75-25.45 g/100 g), while the crude fat content decreased correspondingly (10.70-4.66 g/100 g). The sugar content remained relatively constant across groups. Fatty acid analysis showed increased levels of C16:0, C14:0, and C16:1 and decreased levels of C18:1, C18:2, and C18:3 with higher bovine blood contents. The amino acid content generally increased with higher blood proportions. This study highlights the bioconversion potential of BSFL for bovine blood and underscores the impact of protein, lipid, and sugar concentrations in feed on BSFL growth. These findings provide valuable insights for utilizing slaughterhouse waste in BSFL rearing, contributing to the development of more sustainable waste management and animal feed production methods.

Gamma radiation’s influence on the tensile characteristics of waste animal fiber reinforced biocomposites

This study involves the preparation of polymer composites using untreated and treated chicken feather, leather, and cow hair fiber in combination with unsaturated polyester resin (UPR) and analyzing the effect of gamma radiation on tensile properties. These fibers were incorporated into the resin matrix at various weight percentages (2%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 12%, and 15%). Additionally, the nanoparticle ZnO was added in the composites as filler to improve the mechanical properties. The composites that utilized treated chicken feather fibers yielded superior results in comparison to those that relied on untreated fibers. Prepared composites outperformed neat composites when inorganic components were added as filler to UPR. Composite materials’ mechanical properties, particularly their tensile strength and modulus, can be improved by combining cow hair feather and chicken feather mixed fibers with ZnO filler and gamma radiation modification, according to this study. The morphological and spectroscopic analysis provides supporting evidence for the mechanical strength between the fibers and the resin. Ionizing gamma radiation modification of the fiber resulted in superior tensile characteristics. The optimized composites of animal fibers were then subjected to gamma radiation of variable dose of 0, 2.5, 5 and 7.5 kGy. The tensile properties were found to be the maximum at 5 kGy. Scanning electron microscopy was used to investigate the structural changes caused by the incorporation of animal fibers (chicken feather and cow hair) and ZnO. Composite material and UPR functional group identification were achieved by means of Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR).

Sosialisasi dan Pelatihan Budidaya Maggot untuk Pengelolaan Sampah Organik dan Pakan Ternak di Dukuh Sutorejo

Household waste management is a significant challenge in Indonesia along with population growth and economic activity. In 2021, organic waste contributed 54.31% of the total waste in Surabaya. One innovative solution is the use of bioconversion technology with Black Soldier Fly (BSF) larvae which can decompose organic waste quickly and produce animal feed and organic fertilizer. The socialization and training program in Dukuh Sutorejo aims to introduce and train residents in maggot cultivation as an alternative for waste management and animal feed. This activity includes socialization about the benefits of maggots, training in cultivation techniques, and providing maggot samples for independent cultivation. The evaluation results showed that 91% of participants understood how to apply maggots for organic waste management and animal feed, indicating the success of the program.

Optimization of Lipid Production of Rhodosporidium toruloides from Various Substrates

Background and Aim: In recent years, bioenergy has received a lot of attention from a technical point of view due to its ability to use reversible resources and its applicability worldwide. Biodiesel is a non-toxic, safe, renewable, and degradable fuel that is obtained from natural sources, such as vegetable oils, food waste oils, animal fats, algae, and microorganisms. This study aimed to optimize the lipid production of Rhodosporidium toruloides as a biofuel from different substrates. Materials and Methods: In this experimental laboratory study, after lipid extraction from Rhodosporidium toruloides CECT1137, cell biomass, nitrogen, and sugar consumption were measured according to the Bly and Dyer method. Then, using gas chromatography, the produced lipid compounds were identified, and lipid production was optimized by the one-factor method (type of nitrogen source and KH2PO4) and the Taguchi method (carbon and nitrogen source, temperature, pH, centrifuge, and time). Finally, the feasibility of mutation was investigated using UV to optimize lipid production. Results: The amount of lipid produced by Rhodosporidium toruloides was 4.95 g/l, which, after optimization by the Taguchi method, reached 8.54 g/l. Cell biomass, residual nitrogen, and consumed sugar were measured as 14.05, 0.19, and 28.85 g/l, respectively. Optimal production conditions were estimated by Taguchi, including 80 g/l carbon source, 1 g/l nitrogen source, 25 ° C, pH = 5.5, centrifuge at 180 rpm, and 96 hours. Most lipids produced were oleic acid and palmitic acid. Lipid production increased after UV exposure. Conclusion: The results showed that Rhodosporidium toruloides can accumulate a significant amount of lipid in its cells and can be a good alternative to plants and other sources of fuel production.

Evidence of HARKing in mouse behavioural tests of anxiety.

Over the last decades, behavioural tests in animals, especially rodents, have been a standard screening method to determine the mechanisms of action and efficacy of psychopharmacological compounds. Yet, recently the reproducibility of some of these tests has been questioned. Based on a systematic review of the sensitivity of mouse behavioural tests to anxiolytic drugs, we analysed behavioural outcomes extracted from 206 studies testing the effect of diazepam in either the open-field test or the hole-board test. Surprisingly, we found that both the rationale given for using the test, whether to detect anxiolytic or sedative effects, and the predicted effect of diazepam, anxiolytic or sedative, strongly depended on the reported test results. The most likely explanation for such strong dependency is post hoc reasoning, also called hypothesizing after the results are known (HARKing). HARKing can invalidate study outcomes and hampers evidence synthesis by inflating effect sizes. It may also lead researchers into blind alleys, and waste animals, time and resources for inconclusive research.

Production, optimization, and characterization of biodiesel from almond seed oil using a bifunctional catalyst derived from waste animal bones and almond shell

The search for environmentally friendly alternatives to conventional fossil fuels has been intensified by the global shift toward sustainable energy sources. With over 95% of the fuel market dominated by petroleum-based products, concerns regarding their limited biodegradability and high eco-toxicity have been escalated. In response, there is a growing demand for biobased solutions that can mitigate pollution and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. In this study, the synthesis of biodiesel from waste almond seed oil (WCO) was focused on, utilizing an innovative bifunctional catalyst derived from waste animal bones and almond shells. The efficacy of the catalyst synthesized from these unconventional materials was confirmed through rigorous characterization techniques, including scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, and Brunauer, Emmett, and Teller (BET) analysis. The physicochemical properties of WCO and the resulting biodiesel were evaluated according to ASTM D6751 and EN 14214 standards. To optimize the catalytic process, Box Behnken Design (BBD) was employed to explore the effects of key parameters: reaction temperature (40-60°C), reaction time (60-90 minutes), catalyst loading (0.5-1.5 wt%), and methanol-to-oil ratio (6:1-18:1). Remarkably, under optimal conditions, an impressive biodiesel yield of 86.2% was achieved. Specifically, the optimal parameters were a Methanol:Oil Ratio of 6.026, Catalyst Loading of 1.49917 wt%, Reaction Time of 66.8179 minutes, and Temperature of 59.9806°C. The potential of utilizing waste materials for sustainable biodiesel production is underscored by our findings. The bifunctional catalyst developed in this study represents a cost-effective and environmentally friendly alternative to conventional catalysts, contributing to cleaner fuel production methods.

Hydroxyapatite synthesis and characterization from waste animal bones and natural sources for biomedical applications.

Hydroxyapatites (HAps) synthesized from waste animal bones have recently gained attention due to their outstanding properties. This is because there is a need to fabricate scaffolds with desirable mechanical strength, ability to withstand high temperatures, and insoluble in solvents such as water, acetone, ethanol, and isopropyl alcohol. This study is an extensive summary of many articles on the routes of synthesis/preparation of HAp, and the optimum processing parameter, and the biomedical application areas, such as: drug administration, dental implants, bone tissue engineering, orthopedic implant coatings, and tissue regeneration/wound healing. A broad catalog of the synthesis methods (and combination methods), temperature/time, shape/size, and the calcium-to-phosphorous (Ca/P) value of diverse waste animal bone sources were reported. The alkaline hydrolysis method is proposed to be suitable for synthesizing HAp from natural sources due to the technique's ability to produce intrinsic HAp. The method is also preferred to the calcination method owing to the phase transformation that takes place at high temperatures during calcinations. However, calcinations aid in removing impurities and germs during heating at high temperatures. When compared to calcination technique, alkaline hydrolysis method results in crystalline HAp; the higher degree of crystallinity is disadvantageous to HAp bioactivity. In addition, the standardization and removal of impurities and contaminants, thorough biocompatibility to ensure clinical safety of the HAp to the human body, and improvement of the mechanical strength and toughness to match specific requirements for the various biomedical applications are the important areas for future studies.

Wild red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) do not participate in SARS-CoV-2 circulation in Poland

Background: Biomonitoring is an essential activity for identifying possible vectors and reservoirs of pathogens and predicting potential outbreaks. Wild red foxes are present in both sylvatic and synanthropic environments, making them potential carriers of zoonotic pathogens. Experimental studies have shown that both coyotes and red foxes can transmit SARS-CoV-2. This study aimed to assess the prevalence and seroprevalence of SARS-CoV-2 in wild red foxes hunted in northern Poland. Methods: Oral swabs, blood clots or heat tissue samples were collected from 292 red foxes hunted in northern Poland. We used both molecular (RT-PCR) and serological (IFA) approaches to detect SARS-CoV-2 infections in the sampled animals. Results: We did not find any evidence of SARS-CoV-2 infection in the collected samples, using both molecular and serological methods. Conclusions: Despite foxes having frequent contact with humans, human waste, and other animals, they do not appear to participate in the circulation of the SARS-CoV-2 virus in our geographical region. Nevertheless, we believe that continuous biomonitoring should be performed to assess the SARS-CoV-2 epidemiological situation in the wild.

Hemolymph metabolism of black soldier fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae), response to different supplemental fungi.

The black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens L. (Diptera: Stratiomyidae), is commonly used for organic waste recycling and animal feed production. However, the often inadequate nutrients in organic waste necessitate nutritional enhancement of black soldier fly larvae, e.g., by fungal supplementation of its diet. We investigated the amino acid composition of two fungi, Candida tropicalis (Castell.) Berkhout (Saccharomycetales: Saccharomycetaceae) and Pichia kudriavzevii Boidin, Pignal & Besson (Saccharomycetales: Pichiaceae), from the black soldier fly gut, and commercial baker's yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae Meyen ex E.C. Hansen (Saccharomycetales: Saccharomycetaceae), and their effects on larval growth and hemolymph metabolites in fifth-instar black soldier fly larvae. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry was used to study the effect of fungal metabolites on black soldier fly larval metabolism. Amino acid analysis revealed significant variation among the fungi. Fungal supplementation led to increased larval body mass and differential metabolite accumulation. The three fungal species caused distinct metabolic changes, with each over-accumulating and down-accumulating various metabolites. We identified significant alteration of histidine metabolism, aminoacyl-tRNA biosynthesis, and glycerophospholipid metabolism in BSF larvae treated with C. tropicalis. Treatment with P. kudriavzevii affected histidine metabolism and citrate cycle metabolites, while both P. kudriavzevii and S. cerevisiae treatments impacted tyrosine metabolism. Treatment with S. cerevisiae resulted in down-accumulation of metabolites related to glycine, serine, and threonine metabolism. This study suggests that adding fungi to the larval diet significantly affects black soldier fly larval metabolomics. Further research is needed to understand how individual amino acids and their metabolites contributed by fungi affect black soldier fly larval physiology, growth, and development, to elucidate the interaction between fungal nutrients and black soldier fly physiology.

A GIS-based analysis of heavy metals around Otukpo rice mill in Benue state

Heavy metals are primarily sourced from natural pedo-geochemical backgrounds and anthropogenic occurrences like composting, sewage sludge, aerosol deposition, and waste animal manure. The study aims to determine the heavy metals within the rice mill in Otukpo to understand the spatial distribution with the objectives to examine the heavy metals within the identified activity areas in the Otukpo rice mill, to determine the spatial distribution of heavy metals within the study area and to compare heavy metal values with the acceptable limits. Soil samples were collected from ten locations at Otukpo Rice Mill to analyze heavy metal concentrations. The samples were collected using sterile bottles and a stainless trowel, and the soil samples were analyzed for the concentrations of Cadmium, Copper, Lead, Nickel, Zinc, Mercury, Iron, Arsenic, and Chromium using the Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry method. The result was analyzed using interpolation to see the variation of the Heavy metals within the various activity areas. The result of the study reveals that Iron has the highest concentration at the Entrance point and lowest at the Generator house with a range value of 3.92 – 1.12mg/kg respectively. The highest concentration of Zinc was recorded at the Mechanic workshop while the lowest is at the Drying point with a range value of 0.135 – 0.872mg/kg respectively. The Husk dumpsite recorded the highest concentration of Copper (0.666mg/kg) with the Drying point recording the least (0.088 mg/kg). The study reveals uneven concentrations and highlights the effectiveness of the Geographic Information System in mapping heavy metal concentrations.

Resilience of sustainability for a smart production system to produce biodiesel from waste animal fat

The smart production system is implemented for more effective labor, less waste, and a reduction of energy consumption. Biofuels are significant substitutes for conventional fuels and decreases air pollution and carbon monoxide, can be made through a smart production system with automated machines. Biodiesel can be produced using an assortment of sources that can be both edible and inedible, but animal fat is a sensible alternative among inedible sources because of its affordable price and ease of availability. The model studies the smart biodiesel production system with energy utilization and less carbon emissions to produce pure biodiesel. The multi-objective mathematical model minimizes the total biodiesel supply chain cost followed by minimizing the total biodiesel supply chain environmental impact and enhancing its social impact. The smart production system with a variable production rate produces the biodiesel with less impurities, but still impurities in the biodiesel, that can be detected by a two-stage autonomated inspection system. The impure biodiesel is remanufactured in the biorefineries at the end of every natural production cycle. For the best utilization of energy, various energy costs, such as lighting and air handling costs are calculated. The improved augmented ϵ-constraint approach with lexicographic optimization is utilized to solve the model. The four mathematical examples are studied, and the repercussions of mathematical experiments reveal that the animal fat purchasing cost is 44.32% of the total cost, and the percentage of impurities in biodiesel can be decreased through minimum energy consumption. The managerial insights of the model, graphical representation, and sensitivity analysis of key parameters are provided in this research. The conclusions can be useful to investors in a sustainable smart production system and biofuel policymakers.

Optimized biodiesel synthesis from an optimally formulated ternary feedstock blend via machine learning-informed methanolysis using a composite biobased catalyst

This work investigated biodiesel production from a blend of waste cooking oil (65.46 % WCO), waste palm oil (18.56 % WPO), and waste animal fat (15.98 % WAF) using a biobased heterogeneous catalyst. The catalyst was comprised of Ca (47.80 %), K (11.06 %), Mg (4.11 %), and Al (2.31 %). Biodiesel was produced via transesterification, and yield prediction and optimization were carried out using machine learning models and nature-inspired optimization algorithms. The catalyst's surface area and pore volume were 288.1 m2/g and 0.159 cm3/g respectively. The optimum biodiesel yield of 98.31 % was achieved at 61 °C, with 2 wt% catalyst concentration, 149.98 min reaction time, and a methanol-to-oil ratio of 6.01:1. The most influential input was the methanol-to-oil ratio, as revealed by global sensitivity analysis (GSA). The catalyst remained active for six cycles, and the produced biodiesel met quality standards. This study emphasizes the importance of machine learning and optimization algorithms in heterogeneous catalyzed biodiesel production.

Cultivation of Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens) Larvae for the Valorization of Spent Coffee Ground: A Systematic Review and Bibliometric Study

The global surge in coffee consumption has led to the generation of significant amounts of spent coffee grounds (SCG), a by-product of the brewing process. If it is left unprocessed in the landfill, it will generate methane, one of the greenhouse gases, and therefore accelerate global warming. The intersection of SCG and its potential as a substrate for black soldier fly (BSF) larvae cultivation as one of the pathways for processing SCG becomes intriguing as we seek sustainable waste management solutions. The combination of both nutrition and toxic alkaloids (caffeine) makes SCG and/or other coffee parts intriguing for recycling (or upcycling) via BSF cultivation to generate insect protein. Due to its remarkable capacity to bioconvert organic waste into high-value proteins and fats, the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens, has garnered attention in waste management and animal feed production. This comprehensive review sheds light on the recent development of using SCG as a substrate for BSF larvae.

Production of Biodiesel from WVO Using Small Scale Continuous Ultrasonic Processor

There is a need in the USA to decrease dependency on fossil fuels. One alternative fuel that has gained much popularity in the past few years is biodiesel. Biodiesel can be produced using vegetable oil, waste vegetable oil (WVO), animal fat and yellow grease as raw materials. However, the process of converting a batch of WVO into usable biodiesel is time consuming, requires a human operator to run the system, and necessitates the performance of a chemical titration for each batch of biodiesel produced. In the first phase of this project, the processor was designed and built by the senior design students utilizing a programmable logic controller (PLC) in conjunction with pumps, valves, temperature sensors, etc. to completely handle the production of biodiesel with minimum operator interaction. This was the first step toward continuous flow processor and the elimination of the titration process. In the second phase of this project, the students integrated a small Hielscher Ultrasound continuous processing unit to the automated system. This paper presents the newly developed system and demonstrates the design aspects of the automated biodiesel production processor using a PLC and ultrasonication (continuous processing) as well as how the chemical titration procedure for each batch is eliminated.

Pregled proizvodnje biodizela transesterifikacijom esterifikovanog ulja Carica Papaia (CSO)

As a result of global urbanization and modernization, the use of petroleum (fossil fuel) is on the increase and there are growing concerns among stakeholders in the oil and gas industry over the depletion rate of petroleum reserves and its rising cost. The conversion of readily available sources of biomass to produce different types of biofuels to address the future energy crisis is one of the preferred attractive choices. Biodiesel is generally produced by the transesterification reaction of vegetable oils, waste vegetable oil or animal fats in the presence of a suitable catalyst. The choice of biodiesel as a preferred renewable source of energy was based on its biodegradability, non-toxic, lower emissions, sulphur free, low levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and their nitrated compounds. This alternative source of energy is environmentally friendly and could be used in the existing diesel engines with little or no modifications. This will reduce the world's dependence on fossil fuels that are non-renewable with the attendant environmental benefits to mankind. However, the use of these edible vegetable oils will put pressure on the food uses of such oil which will result to fuel-food crisis in the future. This impending crisis can be readily averted by exploring non-edible crops/agricultural waste biomass that can be grown or harnessed domestically and capable of producing oils as valuable raw materials for the emerging industry. A free fatty acid (FFA) lower than 3% is necessary to carry out the base catalysed reaction to end. For biodiesel production, the higher the acid value of the oil, the lesser the conversion efficiency hence the need for esterification process. Papaya seed contains 27.3% to 28.3% protein, 28.2% to 30.7% lipids, and 19.1% to 22.6% crude fibers, it is not economically used. The majority of seeds are produced as residues and discarded as agricultural waste during fruit processing, generating environmental issues. Oil is abundant in papaya seeds (13.9% to 40.0%), which is rich in monounsaturated fatty acids and beneficial phytochemicals as tocopherol, carotene, and phenolics. This provides information on how to reduce pollution and make waste seeds lucrative. As a result, the CPSO is receiving an increasing amount of attention.