Waste Animal Research Articles

New insights into meat by-product utilization

Meat industry generates large volumes of by-products like blood, bones, meat trimmings, skin, fatty tissues, horns, hoofs, feet, skull and viscera among others that are costly to be treated and disposed ecologically. These costs can be balanced through innovation to generate added value products that increase its profitability. Rendering results in feed ingredients for livestock, poultry and aquaculture as well as for pet foods. Energy valorization can be obtained through the thermochemical processing of meat and bone meal or the use of waste animal fats for the production of biodiesel. More recently, new applications have been reported like the production of polyhydroxyalkanoates as alternative to plastics produced from petroleum. Other interesting valorization strategies are based on the hydrolysis of by-products to obtain added value products like bioactive peptides with relevant physiological effects as antihypertensive, antioxidant, antidiabetic, antimicrobial, etc. with promising applications in the food, pharmaceutical and cosmetics industry. This paper reports and discusses the latest developments and trends in the use and valorisation of meat industry by-products.

Using Biomass in Power Generation for Supplying Electrical and Thermal Energy in Iran and Evaluation of Environmental Pollution Spread

The main objective of this study is estimating environmental pollution of hybrid biomass and co-generation power plants. Efficiency of direct tapping of biomass is about 15%-20%. Consequently, about 80% of energy would be waste in this method. While in co-generation power plant, this number could improve to more than 50%. Therefore, to achieve higher efficiency in utilizing biomass energy, co-generation power plants is proposed by using biogas as fuel instead of natural gas. Proposed system would be supplied thermal and electrical energy for non-urban areas of Iran. In this regard, process of fermentation and gas production from biomass in a vertical digester is studied and simulated using analytic methods. Various factors affecting the fermentation, such as temperature, humidity, PH and optimal conditions for the extraction of gas from waste agriculture and animal are also determined. Comparing between the pollution emission from fossil fuel power plants and power plants fed by biomass shows about 88% reduction in greenhouse emission which significant number.

Waste Animal Bone as Support for CaO Impregnation in Catalytic Biodiesel Production from Vegetable Oil

Heterogeneous catalyst plays a vital role in this process, especially in view of cost and reusability. In the present study, a useless material such as waste animal bone was employed as support for calcium oxide impregnation. CaO was impregnated on the pre-treated waste sheep bone as an active component in different loading levels. The catalyst was then characterized and tested in reaction in similar conditions as follows: atmospheric pressure; reaction temperature: 60 °C; methanol/oil molar ratio: 12:1; catalyst weight (based on oil weight): 5 % and reaction time: 5 h, under vigorous stirring. When 5 wt% of CaO, based on support weight was impregnated, maximum conversion of 95.18 % was obtained and also the catalyst was recoverable. On the other hand, conversion of 49.51 % was obtained when the same amount of CaO was used without support and the catalyst was also non-reusable. Moreover, reusability tests showed only a slight decrease in catalyst activity.

Transesterification and Production of Biodiesel from Waste Cooking Oil: Effect of Operation Variables on Fuel Properties

Biodiesel is proved to be the best replacement for diesel because of its unique properties like low toxicity, no sulfur emissions, no particulate matter pollutants, significant reduction in greenhouse gas emissions and biodegradability. Several processes for biodiesel fuel production have been developed, among which transesterification using alkali catalysis gives high levels of conversion of triglycerides to their corresponding methyl esters in short reaction times. It is prepared from waste vegetable oils and animal fats by trans-esterification process. It is alkali catalyzed reaction which involves waste cooking oil, methanol, and potassium hydroxide. The study focus on the physical and chemical properties of waste cooking oil (WCO), transesterification and production of biodiesel from WCO. The operation variables used were methanol/oil molar ratio (5:1-9:1), catalyst concentration (0.5-2.0 wt%), temperature (30-70°C). The evolution of the process was followed by gas chromatography, determining the concentration of the methyl esters at different reaction times. The biodiesel was characterized by its density, viscosity, high heating value, cetane index, cloud and pour points, characteristics of distillation, flash and combustion points, saponification value, and iodine value according to ISO norms. The biodiesel with the best properties was obtained using a methanol/oil molar ratio of 6:1, potassium hydroxide as catalyst (1%), and 60°C temperature. This biodiesel had properties very similar to those of no. 2 diesel.

Production and Growth Prospects of Second-Generation Biodiesel Using Waste Animal Fat

Production and Growth Prospects of Second-Generation Biodiesel Using Waste Animal Fat

Application of Response Surface Methodology for Optimization of Biodiesel Production by Transesterification of Animal Fat with Methanol

In this paper, the transesterification of waste animal fat with methanol is studied. The transesterification reaction is affected by parameters like catalyst concentration, reaction time, and reaction temperature and methanol quantity. In this work, optimization techniques such as central composite design and response surface methods have used to find best combination of transesterification parameters to obtain maximum biodiesel yield. The combined effect of catalyst concentration, reaction time and methanol quantity on biodiesel yield were investigated and optimized by using response surface method. XLSTAT software has used to generate a second order model to predict biodiesel yield as a function of catalyst concentration, reaction time and methanol quantity by keeping reaction temperature (55 0 C to 60 0 C) for all experiments. 3D surface plots have been developed to predict maximum biodiesel yield. A statistical model predicted the maximum waste animal fat methyl ester yield of 85.93% volume of oil at optimized parameters of methanol quantity (35% volume of oil), base catalyst concentration (0.46% weight of oil) and reaction time (90 minutes). Experimentally, maximum yield of 91% was obtained at above parameters. A variation of 5.56% was observed between predicted maximum and experimental maximum yield. This is there within the acceptable variation between theoretical and experimental value.

Cow Manure Composting by Microbial Treatment for Using as Potting Material: An Overview.

Dairy industry is flourishing in Saudi Arabia for the last two decades producing milk and milk products to meet the population needs. Simultaneously, it is also producing large amount of dairy waste (animal manure) posing a serious environmental issues. Vermicomposting (conversion of animal manure into compost by bacterial treatments) is considered as one of the safest means for efficient management and to mitigate environmental pollution issues resulting from land disposal of raw dairy wastes. The main objective of this studywas to summarize different processes of vermicomposting and identified the most important bacteria species suitable for vermicomposting using animal manure especially the cowdung. The review showed that among the different bacteria species, Eisenia fetida is the most efficient and commonly used bacteria for vermicomposting to develop compost using cow dung (dairy manure). Overall,this review has highlighted the various vermicomposting technologies, various bacteria species involved in vermicomposting, effect on soil and plant growth as well as the benefits of using compost prepared by way of vermicomposting. The study showed a lot of potential for the production of compost by vermicomposting technology using appropriate bacteria species which is safe, friendly and is associated with minimum environmental issues for safe land disposal of dairy waste (animal manure) with minimum possible environmental issues for the adjacent population.

Dirhinus giffardii (Hymenoptera: Chalcididae), parasitoid affecting Black Soldier Fly production systems in West Africa

Interest for insect farming is currently growing globally. Conditions in West Africa appear suitable for developing such farming systems that can benefit communities by improving livelihoods, food and feed security or sanitation. In Ghana and Mali, the Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens Linnaeus, 1758) is being produced for waste recycling and animal feed. In a two stages process (egg and larvae production), egg production was hampered by a pupal parasitoid, Dirhinus giffardii Silvestri, 1913 (Hymenoptera: Chalcididae), which reduced future broodstock by almost 72%. This is the first time D. giffardii is reported as a parasitoid of H. illucens pupae and one of the first reports of parasitism in this commercially important fly species. The introduction of precautionary measures is highly recommended for the success of H. illucens production systems in West Africa.

Pilot-scale production of biodiesel from waste fats and oils using tetramethylammonium hydroxide

Annually, a great amount of waste fats and oils not suitable for human consumption or which cannot be further treated are produced around the world. A potential way of utilizing this low-cost feedstock is its conversion into biodiesel. The majority of biodiesel production processes today are based on the utilization of inorganic alkali catalysts. However, it has been proved that an organic base – tetramethylammonium hydroxide – can be used as a very efficient transesterification catalyst. Furthermore, it can be employed for the esterification of free fatty acids – reducing even high free fatty acid contents to the required level in just one step. The work presented herein, is focused on biodiesel production from waste frying oils and animal fats using tetramethylammonium hydroxide at the pilot-plant level. The results showed that the process performance in the pilot unit – using methanol and TMAH as a catalyst, is comparable to the laboratory procedure, even when the biodiesel is produced from waste vegetable oils or animal fats with high free fatty acid content. The reaction conditions were set at: 1.5% w/w of TMAH, reaction temperature 65°C, the feedstock to methanol molar ratio to 1:6, and the reaction time to 120min. The conversion of triglycerides to FAME was approximately 98%. The cloud point of the biodiesel obtained from waste animal fat was also determined.

Extraction of Waste Animal Fat Oil via High Temperature and Frying Methods

축산 폐유지로부터 원료유의 추출 수율을 높이고, 동시에 수분을 제거하면서 원료유로부터 육분잔사를 용이하게 분리하고자 파일럿 규모(300L)에서 고온 용융추출과 볶음추출 및 동시 수분회수 방법을 수행한 결과 다음과 같다.BR (1) 고온 용융추출(100～140℃, 0.10Mpa, 2～3hr)과 볶음추출(70～100℃, -0.09MPa, 60 min) 및 동시 수분회수 결과, 추출탱크의 온도가 110～140℃에서 기름추출 수율이 65% 이상으로 높게 나타났고, 육분 잔사의 발생량은 추출탱크의 온도가 높아질수록 감소하는 경향을 보였다. 원료유의 추출 및 육분잔사를 활용하기 위하여 열처리단계에서 공급되는 에너지 소비를 고려할 경우 열처리 온도 120℃가 적합한 것을 확인 하였다.BR (2) 고온 용융추출 후 볶음추출 단계를 연속적으로 수행한 결과 육분잔사가 슬러리 형태에서 알갱이 형태로 변하여 기름분리가 매우 수월하였다.BR (3) 추출 탱크의 온도 변화는 기름 추출 수율과 통계적으로 유의적인 차이를 보이지는 못했으나 증가하는 값을 보였다. 기름 추출 수율은 육분잔사(r=-0.843)와의 유의적인 부의 상관관계를 보였다.BR (4) 동물성 기름의 주요 지방산은 Myristic acid, palmitic acid, palmitoleic acid, stearic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid의로 구성 되어 있었으며, 포화지방산인 palmitic acid는 최고 28.9%에서 최저 23.5%를 나타내어 유의적인 차이를 나타내었고, 불포화지방산 중 단일불포화지방산인 oleic acid은 최고 51.7%에서 최저 41.6%로 10% 이상의 차이를 보여 유의적인 차이가 인정되었다.BR (5) 동물성 기름의 지방산간의 상관분석을 통해 상관관계를 구명한 바 바이오디젤을 생산하여 계절변화에 따른 이용가치 증대를 위하여 주요 구성 지방산 중 특히 단일불포화지방산인 oleic acid를 증가시키고, 포화지방산을 적정함량 감소시키는 방향으로 연구를 집중한다면 바이오디젤 연료의 주요 품질기준인 산화안정적인 측면과 저온에서 굳어버리는 유동성의 단점을 개선할 수 있을 것으로 예상된다.BR (6) 파일럿 규모에서 추출한 동물성 기름은 산가 1.7±0.22～2.9±0.75, 수분 0.2%, 산화안정성 0.5 hr로 분석되었다.

Polyhydroxyalkanoates production with Ralstonia eutropha from low quality waste animal fats

Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are biodegradable and biocompatible polyesters considered as alternatives to petroleum-based plastics. Ralstonia eutropha is a model organism for PHA production. Utilizing industrially rendered waste animal fats as inexpensive carbon feedstocks for PHA production is demonstrated here. An emulsification strategy, without any mechanical or chemical pre-treatment, was developed to increase the bioavailability of solid, poorly-consumable fats. Wild type R. eutropha strain H16 produced 79–82% (w/w) polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) per cell dry weight (CDW) when cultivated on various fats. A productivity of 0.3g PHB/(L×h) with a total PHB production of 24g/L was achieved using tallow as carbon source. Using a recombinant strain of R. eutropha that produces poly(hydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxyhexanoate) [P(HB-co-HHx)], 49–72% (w/w) of PHA per CDW with a HHx content of 16–27mol% were produced in shaking flask experiments. The recombinant strain was grown on waste animal fat of the lowest quality available at lab fermenter scale, resulting in 45g/L CDW with 60% (w/w) PHA per CDW and a productivity of 0.4g PHA/(L×h). The final HHx content of the polymer was 19mol%. The use of low quality waste animal fats as an inexpensive carbon feedstock exhibits a high potential to accelerate the commercialization of PHAs.

Conversion of waste animal bones into porous hydroxyapatite by alkaline treatment: effect of the impregnation ratio and investigation of the activation mechanism

Microporous biochars, mainly composed by hydroxyapatite (HAp), were prepared from animal waste bones. In this study, a three-step procedure including pre-pyrolysis, chemical treatment with NaOH, KOH and K2CO3, and pyrolysis was investigated. The effects of the activation agent and its concentration were analysed by N2 adsorption–desorption, SEM, EDX, FTIR, and XRD techniques. The activation mechanism was investigated by TG-MS. FTIR and XRD data confirm that the obtained biochars were mainly composed of HAp. K2CO3 was the most effective with porosity being increased by 30 % (up to 234 m2/g) compared to non-alkali-treated sample. New pores were generated mainly in the microporous range. Analysis of the pyrolysis gases by MS revealed that the main effect of the alkali treatment is the incorporation of OH− ions, which then react with bone matrix to generate porosity. Other gas-phase reactions, such as reverse WGS and methanation reactions, promoted by K2CO3, may be involved in the activation process. In contrast, KOH caused little modification of the HAp structure. Statistical analysis supported the relationship among the release of certain compounds during pyrolysis and the textural properties of the final material.

Sustainable sourcing to innovate a private brand

To encourage private brands to undertake sustainable sourcing, this paper examines widely-held myths, risks, and business opportunities. This paper introduces the Crawl-Walk-Run approach and outlines actionable steps to take along the way. It is most important to establish one's team of private brand stewards and develop an approachable, believable and achievable private brand sustainable sourcing strategy. There are sustainable sourcing opportunities to address in areas such as packaging, supplier diversity, food waste, and supply chain animal welfare. One must develop sustainable sourcing strategies to give one's private brand products the ‘AND’ factor so customers feel they are getting more for their money. One must communicate one's efforts effectively to develop LOHAS (Lifestyle of Health and Sustainability) and millennial loyalty, and dollars to the value equation reflected in one's private brand sustainable sourcing strategy.

Biodiesel Conversionion of high FFA Neem oil by blending it with low FFA Sesame oil

Biodiesel is a clean, renewable fuel and may be considered as a potential option to supplement fossil-based fuels. It is deduced from a variety of edible and non-edible vegetable oils, animal fats, waste cooking oil and animal fat, etc. Non-edible vegetable oils are second generation feedstocks and a better alternative to edible feed crops for biodiesel production.This paper deals with production of Biodiesel from the oils of Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) and Neem (Azadirachta indica) which are available in India and other parts of the world. Neem oil is non edible oil having very high free fatty acid (FFA) content. It requires pre-treatment neutralization step before undergoing the alkali catalyzed transesterification process, very high alcohol to oil molar ratio and comparatively larger reaction time needed to obtain sustainable yield of biodiesel. Sesame oil is an edible oil mainly used in pharmaceuticals due to its medicinal properties and has low FFA content. These two oils, one having very high FFA content and other having low FFA content are mixed in suitable proportions and this mixture is transesterified without the pre-treatment process at a molar ratio of 6:1. A significant conversion yield is achieved by mixing the feedstocks before transesterification reaction.

Co-processing of FCC light cycle oil and waste animal fats with straight run gas oil fraction

In the European Union the demand for middle distillates is growing, while decrease in the gasoline demand can be observed. Even the most complex refineries are not able to produce the economic yield distribution from the processed crude oil which constantly meets the changing market demand. The growing need of diesel fuel can only be satisfied by using unconventional feedstocks, such as bio-originated resources and less valuable refinery streams (e.g. light cycle oil with high aromatic content, >80%, from Fluid Catalytic Cracker).The aim of our experiments was the investigation (co-processing) of differently prepared mixtures from straight run gas oil (70–100%), light cycle oil (LCO: 0–10%) and waste animal fat (0–20%). There are no publicly available articles which present the use of these feedstock components. We investigated the effects of the process parameters (temperature: 300–380 °C, pressure: 40–70 bar, liquid hourly space velocity (LHSV): 0.75–2.0 h−1, H2/feedstock ratio: 600 Nm3/m3) on the quality and quantity of products obtained from different composition feedstocks. We found that with the usage of favourable parameter combination the total conversion of triglycerides and free fatty acids (FFA) into n-paraffins as well as the saturation of a significant part of the aromatic compounds and the desulphurisation of the LCO and straight run gas oil can be reached. Notable quality improvement was observed in case of all feedstock components at co-processing. High cetane number of alkanes formed from the conversion of triglycerides and FFAs, compensating the low cetane number of products (e.g. monoaromatics and diaromatics) from the saturation of polyaromatic components. Products obtained at advantageous process parameters can be excellent diesel fuel blending components, because they have low sulphur and aromatic content as well as adequate cetane number, density and cold flow properties. Besides these, they contain components from renewable sources, too.

Using waste animal fat based biodiesels–bioethanol–diesel fuel blends in a DI diesel engine

Abstract In this study, animal fat based biodiesels produced in the pilot plant were blended with certain amounts of diesel fuel and bioethanol. Neat biodiesels, diesel fuel and the blends were tested in a direct injection diesel engine and engine performance, combustion and exhaust emission characteristics were investigated. Engine tests were conducted at constant engine speed (1400 rpm) and four different engine loads (150 Nm, 300 Nm, 450 Nm and 600 Nm). The engine tests showed that the brake specific fuel consumptions (BSFC) of biodiesels were about 16% higher while those of the blends containing 20% bioethanol were about 15.7% higher than those of diesel fuel on average. The maximum cylinder gas pressures of biodiesels were about 1.2% higher than those of diesel fuel on average. The start of combustion of biodiesels occurred at earlier crank angles compared to diesel fuel, while the start of combustion occurred at later crank angles with increasing bioethanol amount in the fuel blends. According to brake specific emission results, biodiesels emitted lower carbon monoxide (CO) emissions but they emit higher carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and oxides of nitrogen (NO x ) emissions as compared to diesel fuel. THC emissions increased and CO 2 emissions reduced slightly for the blends containing bioethanol compared with B20 (20% biodiesel, 80% diesel fuel) on average.

Application of D-optimal Design and RSM to Optimize the Transesterification of Waste Cooking Oil Using a Biocatalyst Derived from Waste Animal Bones and Novozym 435

This study was performed to investigate the applicability of the basic heterogeneous fluorapatite catalyst prepared from waste animal bones in the transesterification of waste cooking oil with methanol for production of biodiesel. Response surface methodology based on D-optimal design of experiments was employed to study the significance and interactive effect of methanol to oil (M:O) molar ratio, catalyst concentration, reaction time, and mixing rate on biodiesel yield using the prepared fluorapatite and Novozym 435. Quadratic model equations were obtained describing the interrelationships between dependent and independent variables to maximize the response variable (biodiesel yield) and the validity of the predicted models were confirmed. The optimum combination for transesterification were determined to be 7.35:1 and 6:1 M:O, 4.35 and 8.8 catalyst wt%, 91 and 96 min, and 331 and 394 rpm at 60°C, for prepared fluorapatite and Novozym 435, respectively, with maximum biodiesel yield of ≈ 96 and 62%, respectively. Fuel properties of the produced biodiesel and its blends with petro-diesel were measured and compared with those of Egyptian petro-diesel and international biodiesel standards. Acceptable agreement was observed, encouraging application of fluorapatite prepared from waste animal bones for production of biodiesel as an alternative or complementary to petro-diesel.

Fuel from waste animal fats

The hunger of the modern human society for energy is tremendous, which is increasing with the increasing population and with the pursuit of higher standards of living. A significant proportion of this energy demand is made up by the different fuels which ensure mobility. Based on environmental and energetic considerations, a larger proportion of this energy is trying to be covered with renewable energy sources on the whole world. Recently mankind utilised the first generation of biofuels for the transportation sector (bioethanol and biodiesel), but the development has not stopped. Today, the second generation is on the border of utilisation (2nd gen. bioethanol and bio gas oil – mixture of iso and normal paraffins). In this article, we are focusing on the topic of 2nd generation bio derived Diesel fuel, the so-called bio gas oil. We are investigating the possibilities of the utilisation of a new, waste feedstock, namely the brown greases which are the products of rendering facilities, in co-process with high sulphur containing heavy gas oil (1.2% sulphur content). During our experiments we produced bio gas oil containing gas oil fraction via the most favourable process parameters of hydrogenation (T: 330–340°C, p: 50bar, LHSV: 1.0h−1) and isomerisation (T: 340°C, p: 50bar, 1.0h−1) of waste lard containing gas oil stream. We determined that these kinds of waste fatty materials can be appropriate feedstocks for the production of renewable diesel–fuel components. In addition, these materials are cheap, and their iLUC (indirect land use change) value is practically zero. The properties (cetane number: ⩾54, CFPP: −10 to −20°C, yield: >91%) of the product obtained after the two consecutive process steps met the valid standard for diesel fuel, thus we proved that this kind of waste feedstock can be an option for bio derived engine fuel production.

Evaluation as Fuel Diesel Engine of Methyl Esters Derived from Waste Animal Fats

The purpose of this study is to convert waste animal fats, which are harmful to the environment and human health, into biodiesel fuel and to investigate the using of biodiesel as fuel in diesel engines. For this reason, fish fat methyl ester (FFME) and chicken fat methyl ester (CFME) have been produced by transesterification method from fish fat and chicken fat. After that, methyl esters have been used as fuel in a single-cylinder, four stroke, direct injection and air-cooled diesel engine; and the effects of fuels on engine performance and exhaust emissions have been comparatively investigated with standard diesel fuel (D2). Engine tests show that the performance parameters of biodiesel fuels do not differ greatly from those of the diesel fuel. Slight power losses, combined with an increase in the fuel consumption, are experienced with the animal fat based biodiesel fuels. On the other hand, exhaust emissions (HC and CO) of FFME and CFME fuels were lower than those of diesel fuel. Taken into account of good fuel combustion characteristics and positive effects on the environment, it can be concluded that FFME and CFME fuels can be used as an alternative to diesel fuel.

Biodiesel production from waste frying oil using waste animal bone and solar heat

A two-step catalytic process for the production of biodiesel from waste frying oil (WFO) at low cost, utilizing waste animal-bone as catalyst and solar radiation as heat source is reported in this work. In the first step, the free fatty acids (FFA) in WFO were esterified with methanol by a catalytic process using calcined waste animal-bone as catalyst, which remains active even after 10 esterification runs. The trans-esterification step was catalyzed by NaOH through thermal activation process. Produced biodiesel fulfills all the international requirements for its utilization as a fuel. A probable reaction mechanism for the esterification process is proposed considering the presence of hydroxyapatite at the surface of calcined animal bones.