War Of Independence Research Articles

“Don’t Dig in the Graveyard”

Abstract This article fills the gap on the research of memory of the Croatian War of Independence (1991–1995) in film and theatre and demonstrates that so far the arts have been the main channel of the emancipatory narrative, challenging the mainstream collective memory of a victim and victorious nation and serving as a space of fostering debate on the country’s recent past. The article focuses on the cultural representation of the war in Croatia in the last decade, since Croatian accession to the EU, while paying special attention to the reactions of the wider audience to such works, especially the key mnemonic actors, such as the war veterans and the nationalist politicians. The results show that even though theatre and film offer counter-narratives on the Homeland War and spur and spark the debate, it is yet to be seen if they can lead to a wider discussion in the society.

Tarihsel Süreç İçerisinde Maraş ve Çevresindeki Ermeni İsyanlarına Genel Bir Bakış

Western states created the concept of the Eastern Question for the nations living in the eastern regions, which they considered to pose a danger. The plans, which were designed with the aim of repelling the Turkish communities when they came to Anatolia, did not achieve their goal from the 11th century to the 19th century, when the Turks became the dominant power in the region. As a result of the end of the glorious periods of the Ottoman Empire and the beginning of the rise of European states, Western states targeted the Ottoman Empire within the framework of the Eastern Question both against the Ottoman pressure they had felt for centuries and in order to continue their political and economic rise. In addition, factors such as the strategic position of the Ottoman Empire and its underground and aboveground resources attracted the attention of the West. In this direction, the Western states, which were ahead of the Ottoman Empire in the fields of knowledge and technique, could not confront the Ottoman Empire directly, and wanted to weaken the state through political, economic and sometimes military methods. Within the framework of these plans, the Western states utilised their own cognates and co-religionists living in the territory of the Ottoman Empire and promised them independent nation states. Affected by this, the Ottoman nations entered into a struggle for independence with the state. Armenians, one of these nations, started the struggle for independence with Muslim Turks, with whom they had lived in the same country for centuries. In the Ottoman Empire, the region of Maraş and Zeytun, where Armenians were densely populated, became the base of Armenian rebellion movements. In this study, the activities of Armenians in and around Maraş during the last period of the Ottoman Empire and the War of Independence and the Armenian Question will be analysed.

Eğitim Yönetiminde Yönetici ve Öğretmen Politikaları Bağlamında Öğretim Plan ve Programlarının İncelenmesi

Turkey has a deep-rooted educational tradition. Even in the days when the war of independence was intense, education was one of the issues that Atatürk cared about the most. Atatürk came from the front and convened the Education Congress in Ankara. The training programs and teacher training policy to be implemented next were discussed at the congress, and in this direction, primary and secondary school programs and the training of village teachers were focused on. Despite the fact that the expected and targeted results of the congress could not be obtained due to the war in which the country is engaged, and it was completed early, the fact that the congress was convened even in a war environment shows the importance that Atatürk attaches to education. After the proclamation of the Republic, the content of the general framework drawn by Atatürk was created by the intellectuals of the Republic, thus initiating social change. During this period, the regulations made in the field of education have been a means of protecting the new system and adopting the values of the Republic. The teaching programs implemented in schools have been shown as one of the most important reasons for the failure in education for many years during the Republican period. Educational programs have been criticized by every government and even different ministers in the same government until today, it has been complained that the subjects are given too intensively and based on memorization, these discussions have extended to the present day. The most basic problem in the planning and implementation of educational programs is that the programs are designed independently of the basic components of education. Especially at the application point, the degree to which teachers and learning-teaching environments and other basic components of education are ready and suitable for this application has been ignored. Dec. The main purpose of the programs is to make the student more active, to ensure their learning by dealing with each student separately and using appropriate methods for students whose learning levels are different. However, in order for this theoretically ideal approach to achieve the desired goals in practice, both teachers in the position of practitioners and the educational environments in which the program will be implemented must be prepared for it. Key Words: Education Management, Education Manager, Teacher, Education Plans and Programs

TheEscribanoof Babel: Power, Exile, and Enslavement in the Venezuelan Llanos During the War of Independence (1806–1833)

AbstractThis article traces the professional life of Rafael Almarza, the last royalescribano(notary) of Mérida in the captaincy of Venezuela, and his role in undermining monarchical authority among the enslaved community displaced in the plains region (Los Llanos) during the war of independence in 1814-18. Despite their status as minor officials within the Spanish imperial bureaucracy, notaries, through the records they made, helped to establish legally binding truths underlying everyday actions, making them influential agents of colonial rule in the community they served, particularly among those seeking notarial documents to obtain freedom. During the battles for independence, escribanos like Almarza facilitated the transition of sovereignty and created documents that fomented the independence cause among enslaved individuals during the years of total war. By examining the manumission documents found in the notarial book Almarza kept during exile, the author of this article shows the importance of enslaved people in granting legitimacy to the emerging leadership of José Antonio Páez and the Republican project. At the same time, this study aims to provide a new look at manumission during the early stages of nation-building and the involvement of underrepresented groups in this process.

Activities of Herbert Grant-Watson, British Foreign Office Representative in Latvia in March–August 1919

The first half of the Latvian War of Independence, from November 1918 to the summer of 1919, was particularly difficult, with the interests of all neighbouring countries and the divided Latvian society (Baltic Germans, Latvians, Bolsheviks, etc.) clashing in the midst of a brutal war in Latvia. In this situation, the representatives of the Western powers, with Britain being the most widely represented, had a presence in Latvia from the end of 1918, with British naval vessels, the Military Mission and the Political Mission from the spring and summer of 1919. From March 1919 – an unofficial representative of the Foreign Office, Herbert Adolphus Grant-Watson, was very active in Latvia, hence, the study of his activities is particularly important. The aim of this article is to establish the circumstances and results of Grant-Watson’s activities in Liepāja and Riga in March–August 1919, examining them chronologically. This task is accomplished on the basis of the materials acquired in British National Archives and other sources.

Frank O’Connor’s “Guests of the Nation”: A Civil War Story of Brother Against Brother?

This article argues that one of Ireland’s literary greats Frank O’Connor (1903–1966) utilized the Irish War of Independence (WOI) as a backdrop for “Guests of the Nation,” one of the most famous works about the Irish revolutionary period. The 1931 short story is set during the Irish WOI (1919–1921). This essay, however, wishes to explore the notion that a subsequent but separate conflict—the Irish Civil War (1922–1923)—was at the forefront of O’Connor’s mind at the time of writing, with concepts of duty, brotherhood, and the questioning of hegemonic military codes suggesting the Civil War undercurrent throughout. Although the cast of characters presented in the story includes two captured English soldiers, Belcher and Hawkins (as well as their Irish captors Bonaparte—the narrator—Noble, and Jeremiah Donovan), the cottage and its inhabitants function, for the writer, as a literary prop that acts as a free landscape to create a “better world.” This, it is argued here, allowed O’Connor to articulate his primary thoughts around the societal influences formed during the Civil War, a conflict of which, in contrast to the WOI, the writer had direct experience.

UKRAINIAN POSTCOLONIAL NOVEL AS A NATIONAL NARRATIVE: “THE MUSEUM OF ABANDONED SECRETS” BY O. ZABUZHKO AND “THE BEECH LAND” BY M. MATIOS

The article examines the seminal novels of Ukrainian women writers from the first and second decades of the 21st century, namely “The Museum of Abandoned Secrets” (“Музей покинутих секретів”, 2009) by O. Zabuzhko and “The Beech Land” (“Букова земля”, 2019) by M. Matios. The selected works are analyzed through the lens of postcolonial criticism, that is, from the point of view of the historical experience of the statelessness of the Ukrainian community and its reflection in literary texts. The main attention is paid to the narrative features of the works, namely the tendency to broad narrative, integrity, and narrative completeness. The purpose of the study is to highlight the postcolonial content of the narrative strategies implemented in the selected novels by O. Zabuzhko and M. Matios. Given that “The Museum of Abandoned Secrets” and “The Beech Land” represent different periods and ideological and aesthetic paradigms, namely postmodernism and metamodernism, one of the tasks of the study is to assert the relevance of postcolonialism in the context of metamodernism. The article aims to highlight the peculiarities of the artistic realization of “postcolonial” narrativity in postmodern and metamodern texts. Additionally, the narrative features of the selected novels are compared. The stated purpose necessitates the application of hermeneutic (interpretation of a literary text), comparative (identification of common and distinctive features of the selected works) methods, as well as the method of structural analysis (examining the narrative structure of the texts). As a result of the study, it is established that postcolonialism, inherent in Ukrainian postmodern prose, remains relevant in the second decade of the twenty-first century. The postcolonial orientation of the novels “The Museum of Abandoned Secrets” and “The Beech Land” is manifested in their intention to affirm the continuity of Ukrainian history by building a panoramic narrative that covers different historical periods and establishes a hereditary connection between them. The study identified the following features common to both novels: the intertwining of family genealogy with national history; the development of narratives at different generational levels – children, parents, grandparents, etc.; the theme of the perpetual war for independence that continues to this day; the image of God as a transcendent guardian of history, capable of seeing the intertwining of human destinies in their entirety. The defining theme shared by both novels is the anti-colonial struggle, particularly the military campaign of the Ukrainian Insurgent Army. This theme necessitates depicting the tragic consequences of imperial oppression. In “The Beech Land”, these are devastation and turmoil, fratricide, ruptured familial ties, the destruction of the Bukovynian “utopia”. In “The Museum of Abandoned Secrets”, these repercussions are shown through the lens of postmodern hypertextuality – as “burnt manuscripts”, irretrievably lost archives, fragmented stories. In addition, the selected novels exhibit an inclination to transcend the boundaries of realistic storytelling. Employing the montage technique, “The Museum of Abandoned Secrets” incorporates a mystical discourse of dreams that operates as a parallel reality, recounting events of the past. The oneiric discourse resonates with the image of an endless virtual archive storing memories of everything that has ever happened in the world. In “The Beech Land”, the departure from realistic historiography occurs through metamodern fantastisation, where the historical panorama is framed by the story of the “Heavenly Chancellery” – a celestial archive inhabited by the Creator and the Angels. The appeal to mystical and imaginative discourses is interpreted as a manifestation of postcolonial longing for lost integrity and completeness. The images of endless imaginary repositories of information complement the incompleteness of history, aiding in overcoming its fragmentary nature and opacity.

İKİNCİ DÜNYA SAVAŞI ÖNCESİ DÖNEMDE TÜRK-GÜRCÜ ORTAK TARİHİNİN GELECEK DÖNEM İLİŞKİLERİNE ETKİLERİ

The present article provides an analysis of the longstanding relations between Türkiye and Georgia, encompassing various dimensions such as diplomatic, economic, social, cultural, and military. The historical background of Turkish-Georgian relations can be traced back to the Seljuks Conquest and the period of Ottoman Empire’s rule in the Caucasus region through its diplomatic, economic, social, and cultural relations with Georgian region. The historical impact of the Seljuk and Ottoman Empires on Georgia's economic growth as a trading partner in the Black Sea, Caucasians and the Mediterranean is noteworthy. However, the extent of Ottoman’s influence was curtailed by the dominance and sway of Russia. Following the Independence War of Türkiye, diplomatic ties were restored through the establishment of the Republic of Türkiye before the annexation of Georgia by the Soviet Union. After the Soviet occupation of Georgia, Türkiye faced a challenging situation, as the political system recently established in Georgia exhibited a strong alignment with the Soviet Union, a geopolitical entity that Türkiye perceived as a possible menace to its own security. Georgia's independence ushered in a new era in Turkish-Georgian ties after the Cold War ended. The two nations now cooperate in political, economic, social, and cultural areas, with recent years seeing a rise in military ties as well. This article explores the correlation between political interdependence and cultural interactions, with a particular focus on historical events such as the Russo-Turkish War, the Battle of Sarikamish, and the Status of City of Batumi. In this context, it will be investigated whether the Turkish-Georgian relations in the pre-World War II period are the main determining factor in the following period. As an assumption, the hypothesis that well-founded Turkey-Georgia relations will help resolve regional crises will be defended.

The health of Royal Navy sailors in the West Indies during the American War of Independence, 1776–1783

The islands of the West Indies are often considered the most dangerous places for eighteenth century British sailors. Contemporary sources maintain that the level of sickness and mortality in the West Indies crippled the Royal Navy's fleet to such an extent as to render it extremely ineffective during the American Revolutionary War. There can be no doubt that disease, accidents and naval action had an effect on the Royal Navy in the West Indies; however the true extent of the impairment has been grossly exaggerated. This paper seeks to examine the precise effects of disease and mortality on British sailors stationed in the West Indies during the American War of Independence.

TÜRKİYE’NİN BALKANLARDAKİ YUMUŞAK GÜCÜ - KOSOVA ÖRNEĞİ

States have important effects on each other, factors such as history, language, culture, belief, geography, and common history are the main components that provide this effect. During the Ottoman period, a large Turkish population lived in the Balkans, the Balkans was very important for the Ottomans geopolitically. The young Turkish Republic embarked on reforms within the country after the War of Independence, failed to maintain sufficient connections and soft power in the Balkans during the Second World War and the Cold War, but the situation changed after the Cold War. With the disappearance of the Soviet threat and Türkiye's desire to pursue a more active foreign policy, the Balkans once again became very important. The Balkans has a dense Turkish population, is Türkiye's open door to Europe, and is closely linked to Türkiye by common historical and cultural ties.
 In the study, Türkiye 's efforts to increase its soft power in the Balkans after the Cold War was examined. While examining the study, the example of Kosovo, one of the most fragile countries in the Balkans, will be detailed. In the study, it is aimed to evaluate the results of these efforts by considering the policies implemented by Türkiye to be effective in the Balkans after the end of the Cold War, the activities of TIKA and Yunus Emre Institute, and Türkiye's soft power in Kosovo / efforts to increase this power.The policies implemented by Türkiye have made significant contributions to the stability of Kosovo, especially the Balkans, and to the development of mutual education, culture and social ties. This situation has had important consequences for Kosovo's integration with the Western alliances, and it is an indication that Türkiye uses its soft power policies as an effective tool in the Balkans.

The role of the Israeli-Syrian mixed armistice commission in the fate of the Arabs of Krad al-Baqqara and Krad al-Ghaname 1948-1956

ABSTRACT The 1949 Israeli-Syrian armistice agreement stipulated the establishment of a mixed armistice commission [MAC] to oversee the implementation of the terms of the agreement. One of the outcomes of this agreement was the creation of demilitarized zones inhabited by local Arab villagers. During Israel’s War of Independence, the residents of Krad al-Baqqara and Krad al-Ghaname fled to Syria; the agreement enabled them to return to their lands in the demilitarized zone. Two years later, Israel moved them out of the demilitarized zone, but then allowed them once again to return. During the 1956 Sinai War most left the zone or were forced to leave for Syria. The legal status of the demilitarized zone meant that unlike the residents of other Arab cities and villages in Israel, these villagers were not under military rule, and that UN observers could intervene in their affairs. Unexplored documents paint a complex picture of the different interests and involvement of the IDF (which oversaw the Israeli Delegation to the Mixed Armistice Commission), the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Syrian government, and the UN observers in their fate.

Loyalty, Subjecthood, and Violence: Veracruz’s Afro-descendants in the Early Mexican War of Independence, 1812–1813

Abstract: This article is centered around the experiences of Afro-descendant men in the 1812–1813 period of the Mexican War of Independence as it occurred in the port-city of Veracruz and it Sotavento (Leeward) hinterland. It argues that Black men had complex, active, and essential roles in providing the backbone of regional royalist and insurgent armies. It pieces together the fragmented military and political agency of Veracruz’s Afro-descendant men as reflected in published and unknown archival sources of the colonial and national archive, such as military reports and correspondence, constitutions, decrees, 19th Century published accounts, and a lengthy court case. This article sheds light on how Afro-descendant men were pushed to participate by their individual and collective needs, reacting to localized, and transatlantic, conditions that promised, or excluded them from, social, economic, and political advancement. By centering Veracruz’s Afro-descendant men as instrumental players of the war, even in leadership roles, this article seeks to problematize traditional narratives of the struggle that negate and erase Black History in the Mexican struggle for liberation. This article also places their experiences within the backdrops of Atlantic World politics during the Age of Revolutions. It examines the ways by which they reacted to limiting frameworks of citizenship influenced by localized, and transatlantic, Anti-Black stereotypes and fears, along with the adoption of the 1812 Cádiz Charter. This article argues that these men found themselves amidst the paradox of being militarily wanted but politically rejected by nineteenth century Spanish colonialism. This led Afro-descendant men to seek new opportunities of belonging and empowerment, joining the insurgency to improve their sociopolitical status. This article seeks to humanize voiceless Afro-descendant historical actors placing them as essential players of Veracruz’s, and the Greater Caribbean’s, early-nineteenth century regional dynamics.

Katherine Beaumont, Countess of Atholl, and the Second Scottish War of Independence (c. 1327–c. 1336)

Katherine Beaumont, countess of Atholl, spent several months besieged within Lochindorb Castle before being rescued by King Edward III of England in July 1336. The king’s campaign through the Highlands, Moray and Aberdeenshire has been seen by modern historians as one of his more chivalric enterprises, but very little is known about Katherine herself beyond her presence at Lochindorb. This article will begin the process of uncovering more of her own history and participation in the Second Scottish War of Independence. It will evaluate the importance of her marriage to David IV Strathbogie and her motherhood of David V within Scottish succession politics, look at her experience in Scotland as it was fought over between Bruce and Balliol, and provide a revised consideration of the siege of Lochindorb. It will also explore how and why such women’s lives and actions are difficult to discern in medieval chronicles, addressing this through the use of alternative documentary and material evidence.

Memori melompat (‘jumping memory’): The mnemonic motion of Indonesian popular culture and the need for a local reframing

The third phase of memory studies is considered to have taken memory into ‘the global age’, yet this article illustrates that in many ways, the nation has since been reinstated within a global context. This article critically scrutinises the idea that memory travels freely and shows that a straightforward mobility of cultural memory does not apply to every local context. In Indonesia, memory travels temporarily, briefly and not far. It therefore suggests more of a jump rather than a journey. As a demonstrative semantic device, the Indonesian term memori melompat (jumping memory) signifies cultural memory formation beyond the West. Nevertheless, the choice of an Indonesian term does not denote a uniqueness to Indonesia, but emphasises instead that Indonesian popular culture about the Indonesian War of Independence is indicative of the need for a local reframing of existing memory concepts to better understand contemporary engagements with the (colonial) past.

The role of trumpet musical aesthetics in Movement II of Bandung marching band: An analysis in “Bandung 1946”

This study examines the influence of trumpet musical aesthetics in Movement II of the Bandung Marching Band "Bandung 1946," emphasizing the deep correlation between visual and auditory components, historical backdrop, and cultural importance. The focus of this inquiry is the trumpet's capacity to augment a performance's impact through its visual presentation, ornamentation, and symbolic associations with tenacity and defiance, which are rooted in Indonesia's war for independence. The significance of this research is in comprehending how the trumpet's musical aesthetics enhance the total experience and emotional impact of the performance, guaranteeing that the legacy of "Bandung 1946" persists in inspiring and captivating audiences. A descriptive qualitative method was utilized to analyze this musical work's intricate and culturally rich nature. This method entails methodically gathering, arranging, and explaining data while capturing descriptive information through verbal or written language and observable behaviours. The research methodology employed observations and document analysis to collect extensive data on the trumpet's aesthetic and cultural importance. The findings demonstrate that the trumpet's precise synchronization with the music's rhythm and dynamics, strategic embellishments, and historical and cultural symbolism greatly enhance the performance. The combination of visual and audio elements in this synthesis results in a compelling and captivating experience that pays tribute to Indonesia's heritage and enhances its cultural narrative. The descriptive qualitative method successfully captured the intricate and subtle role of the trumpet, showcasing its significance in attaining a powerful and meaningful performance. This study emphasizes the crucial significance of musical aesthetics in establishing a connection between audiences and cultural and historical narratives through performance.

Re-imagining the Ambivalent: The Political Trajectory of Lungi from Pre-Colonial East Bangla to Post-Independent Bangladesh

Lungi, Bangladeshi men’s most common informal clothing, occupies an ambivalent position in the country’s sartorial culture because of its inherent status of being anti-modern and anti-formal. Bangladeshi postcolonial poet Kaiser Haq’s (2007) ground-breaking poem, “Ode on the Lungi '' and the growing body of academic papers focusing on the poem have already constructed lungi as a discursive symbol to challenge and decentralise the colonial construction of cultural hierarchies that underpinned such a postcolonial legacy of sartorial discrimination. Important as they are, these studies do not engage with lungi’s actual historical trajectories of resistance and struggle where men in lungi participated as active agents to challenge authoritative power regimes. By investigating the key episodes of “politics of the people'' (Guha, 1988, p. 40) from pre-colonial east Bangla to present-day Bangladesh, the paper reclaims lungi’s active yet metaphorical performative at each stage of collective struggles that ultimately led to the 1971 War of Independence (Muktijuddho), where lungi was the main attire of the male freedom fighters (Muktijoddhas). This paper argues that the national/cultural ambivalence around lungi in Bangladesh is rooted in its simultaneous trope of being a clothing of people who are at the edges of political power, yet their collective resistance can be subversive. This is one of the reasons why a ban on lungi in contemporary Bangladesh, although more common than before, often becomes a topic of heated debates and discussions among the educated, middle-class communities. Spectrum, Volume 17, June 2022: 47-65

From Exile to a Global Citizen

In ancient Greek literature and Indian epics, Mahabharata and Ramayana, exile or banishment is depicted as a punishment meted out for sins and crimes committed by humans, whether knowingly or unknowingly. Gradually, from individual/ group punishment, exile evolved into mass exodus resulting from war, conquests and other conflicts. All forms of exiles suffer from the pain and sorrow of leaving behind one’s homeland and belongings. Consequently, the literature produced by exiled poets and writers are filled with nostalgia and agonizing memories. However, over the years, other concerns related to their new lives gain prominence in their writings. This paper attempts to trace the journey of exiles from the past to the present and move towards the future in the writings of diasporic writers of different decades. This paper will focus on the works of V.S. Naipaul, Monica Ali, Zia Haider Rahman and Tarfia Faizullah to discover the newer trends emerging in their texts. V.S. Naipaul’s A House for Mr Biswas (1961) is the epitome of the diasporic writer’s attempt to understand his past in relation to his present. The ownership of a house in the new country is like staking a claim to belong to that country, and Mr. Biswas is desperate to do so. On the other hand, Monical Ali’s Brick Lane, published at the turn of the century, deals with a husband and wife negotiating the difficulties of belonging to a new society. Zia Haider Rahman and Tarfia Faizullah belong to the next group of diaspora writers, who are second generation immigrants growing up in a new land no longer ‘foreign’ to them. The protagonist of Rahman’s novel in The Light of What We Know (2014) successfully confronts problems and complications to ‘belong’ and ‘become’ a British citizen. Tarfia Faizullah, a young Bangladeshi-American poet, uses the history of the War of Independence of Bangladesh to align it with other similar universal discourse of genocide. It appears that figuratively, the exiled writer has now arrived at an acceptable point where s/he is flying out as a global citizen. This transformation of diasporic writers from the periphery to the centre as globally read figures has given rise to the concept of transnationalism. Spectrum, Volume 17, June 2022: 1-11

Analysis of the strategies used in Bangladesh’s Liberation War with West Pakistan against the background of the Cold War

This article intends to analyse the events which unfolded around Bangladesh’s War of Independence (1971). In retrospect, initially the war was Bangladesh’s attempt at gaining independence from Pakistan, which was to begin with recognition as the country’s eastern province. Specifically, the authors want to flesh out the aspects of irregular warfare, insurgency strategy, and the total people’s war in a case study. To do this, this qualitative article employs a historiographic analytical lens in its analysis. Furthermore, in its methodology section, the authors outline J.D. Kiras’ four concepts behind a successful insurgency, and Abdul H. Nasution’s proposition of “nationalism” as the article’s theoretical framework. These concepts include space, time, support, and legitimacy. The results of this study show that, firstly, the Bangladeshis could utilise the “space” aspect by exploiting geographical differences. Secondly, the events related to natural disasters that occurred gave impetus to the revolt. Thirdly, the world’s support highlighted the challenging circumstances for Bangladeshis. Fourthly, Bangladesh acquired legitimacy while advocating for the release of political prisoners from Lahore. Finally, nationalism is showcased in the fight because of the work of intellectuals and nationalists. Overall, Bangladesh’s War of Independence produced mixed results with regard to this article’s theoretical framework.

Changes in the Croatian migration system: conceptualising the complexities of migrations, 1990-2023

ABSTRACT This article explores the recent history of labour migration in post-independence Croatia. The time period under investigation is 1990–2023, which encompasses three decades during which the country has experienced complex migrations, in particular of labour migrants and refugees. The article’s ambition is twofold. First, it identifies changing elements of the Croatian migration system, exploring how it is embedded in the wider regional and international migration systems. Second, it proposes a pioneering typology of Croatian migrations and discusses their drivers. The article argues that the Croatian migrations have been significantly affected by the country’s changing affiliations to neighbouring states and the European Union. Several historical, socioeconomic and political junctions have enabled, driven and hampered labour migrations and other migratory flows of the Croatian migration system. It is evident that the war of independence, the poor socioeconomic situation in the post-war period and increased opportunities to emigrate to more developed parts of Europe have all contributed to the depopulation of Croatia and to ongoing changes in its migration system. It is also asserted that understanding the Croatian migration system necessitates a long-term perspective on the interactions between immigrant and emigrant flows, and on how they overlap with return migrations.

Why Has the Franco-American Security Relationship Been so Semi—Hostile for so Long?

Abstract Many people assume that Franco-American relations since 1776 have been far more harmonious than those of the United States’ relationship with Great Britain. After all, France fought on the side of the new aspiring republic in the American War of Independence against a colonial power. Although still a country ruled by a king, France itself became a republic shortly after the American Declaration of Independence was ratified. But in fact, France and the United States (and the colonies that preceded them) have often had poor relations. In his book Sister Republics: Security Relations between America and France, David Haglund asks why security relations between France and the United States been so fractious since the beginning of the American republic, and even well before it. He debunks the generally accepted mythology and its attendant symbology of two sister republics. The French-built and donated Statue of Liberty in New York Harbor and the statue of General Lafayette on the Seine opposite the Quai d’Orsay in Paris are misleading. In truth any special relationship between France and the United States has been special on the whole in its lack of mutual liking, even respect. Haglund traces this difficult, even suboptimal, relationship over three centuries and shows how the weight of history still continues to upset Franco-American relations regularly.