Loss Of Capacity Research Articles

Combined effect of climate change and labor relation on optimally managing labor productivity under uncertainty

Heat stress amplified by climate change causes excessive reductions in labor capacity, work injuries, and socio-economic losses. Yet studies of corresponding impact assessments and adaptation developments are insufficient and incapable of effectively dealing with uncertain information. This gap is caused by the inability to resolve complex channels involving climate change, labor relations, and labor productivity. In this paper, an optimization-based productivity restoration modeling framework is developed to bridge the gap and support decision-makers in making informed adaptation plans. The framework integrates a multiple-climate-model ensemble, an empirical relationship between heat stress and labor capacity, and an inexact system costs model to investigate underlying uncertainties associated with climate and management systems. Optimal and reliable decision alternatives can be obtained by communicating uncertain information into the optimization processes and resolving multiple channels. Results show that the increased heat stress will lead to a potential reduction in labor productivity in China. By solving the objective function of the framework, total system costs to restore the reduction are estimated to be up to 248,700 million dollars under a Representative Concentration Pathway of 2.6 (RCP2.6) and 697,073 million dollars under RCP8.5 for standard employment, while less costs found for non-standard employment. However, non-standard employment tends to restore productivity reduction with the minimum system cost by implementing active measures rather than passive measures due to the low labor costs resulting from ambiguities among employment statuses. The situation could result in more heat-related work injuries because employers in non-standard employment can avoid the obligation of providing a safe working environment. Urgent actions are needed to uphold labor productivity with climate change, especially to ensure that employers from non-standard employment fulfill their statutory obligations.

Anchored Bi with cobalt polyphthalocyanine enhances the reversibility of Bi2Te3 anode for endurable lithium-ion storage

As an intermetallic material, Bi2Te3 possesses great potential in lithium-ion batteries due to its attractive layered structure, intrinsic excellent conductivity and impressive theoretical specific capacity. However, the phase decomposition and the huge volume variation leading to rapid capacity fading hinder the further application of Bi2Te3 in lithium-ion batteries. In this study, two dimensional Bi2Te3 encapsulated in cobalt polyphthalocyanine (CoPPc) is synthesized by a facile recrystallization method, and its electrochemical properties and lithium storage mechanism are comprehensively studied. The Bi2Te3@CoPPc electrodes exhibit outstanding cycling stability with a specific capacity of 551.9 mAh g−1 at 100 mA g−1 and 628.5 mAh g−1 at 500 mA g−1 after 500 cycles, benefiting from the configured composite layered structure and the amiable interaction of Bi2Te3 and CoPPc. Our experimental and theoretic results demonstrate that the electron redistribution induced by the incorporation of CoPPc with charge accumulation around Bi2Te3 and low potential region around Co efficiently facilitates the fast lithium-ion transportation resulting in outstanding rate performance. Our explorative strategy of electron redistribution proposes a new avenue to enhance the catalysis activity and durability of alloy anodes in metal-ion batteries.

Enabling Si‐Dominant Anodes: Influence of Neutralization Degree of Polyacrylic Acid on Low‐Cost Micron‐Sized Silicon Anode in High‐Energy Li‐Ion Full Cell

AbstractMicron‐sized silicon is a promising low‐cost, abundant material to increase the energy density of lithium‐ion batteries. Nevertheless, significant volume change and therefore excessive solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) growth lead to fast capacity fading. In this work, polyacrylic acid (PAA) with different neutralization degrees is used for the fabrication of Si anodes for practical applications. The electrochemical performance in full pouch cells reveals that the increase in neutralization degree of PAA up to 70 % enhances the overall performance by improved electrode properties, higher first cycle efficiency (FCE up to 78.1 % at C/3) and better capacity retention (85.4 % after 150 cycles at 1 C) over cycling, while with even higher neutralization degrees (such as 80 %) the performance declines. Since proper mixing of the slurry is another important factor, we optimized the mixing procedure by increasing the solid content of the slurry, which has shown positive influence on the electrochemical performance and electrode properties. To summarize, this work shows full cell 1 C cycling until capacity retention of 85 % after 150 cycles with pure Si microparticle anodes for 70 % neutralized PAA as well as increased C‐rate performance up to 5 C. Post‐mortem, less degradation on electrode and particle level is observed.

Dual-band millimetre wave MIMO antenna with reduced mutual coupling based on optimized parasitic structure and ground modification

In this study, a high-isolation dual-band (28/38 GHz) multiple-input–multiple-output (MIMO) antenna for 5G millimeter-wave indoor applications is presented. The antenna consists of two interconnected patches. The primary patch is connected to the inset feed, while the secondary patch is arc-shaped and positioned over the main patch, opposite to the feed. Both patches function in the lower 28 GHz band, while the primary patch is accountable for inducing the upper 38 GHz band. An expedited trust-region (TR) algorithm is employed to optimize the dimensions of the antenna components, ensuring the antenna operates efficiently with high reflection at both bands. The antenna demonstrates a gain exceeding 7 dBi at both frequencies. An array of four antennas is configured orthogonally to create a MIMO system with isolation surpassing 19 dB. The isolation is further enhanced through the addition of a circular parasitic patch at the front and modifications made to the ground. The TR method is employed again to optimize their parameters and achieve the desired isolation, exceeding 32 dB at both bands. The MIMO system demonstrates outstanding diversity performance at both frequencies, characterized by low values of the envelope correlation coefficient (ECC) (< 10 − 4), channel capacity loss (CCL) (< 0.03 bit/s/Hz), and total active reflection coefficient (TARC) (< − 10 dB). Additionally, it secures a diversity gain (DG) exceeding 9.99 dB. The MIMO system is manufactured and tested, showing good alignment between simulation and measurement data for all performance metrics.

Surface phosphorylated Li5FeO4 prelithiation additive synergistically improves the air-stability and lithium-ion conductivity

Because of the higher delithiation capacity, Li5FeO4 (LFO) can be used as sacrificial prelithiation additive to compensate the initial capacity loss caused by the formation of solid electrolyte interphase in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). However, the extremely poor air stability and severe phase transition after Li+ deintercalation make it difficult for LFO to be applied in prelithiation engineering practice. Herein, the residual alkali layer generated on the LFO due to air exposure is directly converted into a Li3PO4 layer by a one-pot solid–liquid reaction. The as-obtained surface phosphorylated LFO (LP-LFO) ensures high air stability and effective prelithiation capability. Introducing only 3 wt% LP-LFO to the LiFePO4/Li half-cell can maximally replenish the active Li+ loss and the initial coulombic efficiency, displaying a 9.9 % increase in the initial charge capacity. Moreover, the Li3PO4 coating enables LP-LFO to be a fast ionic conductor, not only inhibiting the phase transition of LFO, but also improving the electronic and ionic conductivity of the electrode, which is confirmed by the complementary tests of galvanostatic intermittent titration technique and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, as well as the structure and morphology characterization. As a result, the LiFePO4/Li half-cell with LP-LFO additive exhibits a higher rate capability (144 mAh g−1 at 2 C) and cycle stability (157 mAh g−1 after 100 cycles at 0.1 C). And a 17.4 % increase in the discharge capacity and a 12.7 % increase in energy density after 200 cycles for the 3 wt% LP-LFO-added LiFePO4||graphite full cell is also achieved. This work provides a facile and efficient conversion strategy for the air-instable electrode additives, and furtherly broadens their industrial application prospect in high energy density LIBs.

Impacts of Curing-Induced Phase Segregation in Silicon Nanoparticle-Based Electrodes

We report the investigation of silicon nanoparticle composite anodes for Li-ion batteries, using a combination of two nm-scale atomic force microscopy-based techniques: scanning spreading resistance microscopy for electrical conduction mapping and contact resonance and force volume for elastic modulus mapping, along with scanning electron microscopy-based energy dispersion spectroscopy, nanoindentation, and electrochemical analysis. Thermally curing the composite anode—made of polyethylene oxide-treated Si nanoparticles, carbon black, and polyimide binder—reportedly improves the anode electrochemical performance significantly. This work demonstrates phase segregation resulting from thermal curing, where alternating bands of carbon and silicon active material are observed. This electrode morphology is retained after extensive cycling, where the electrical conduction of the carbon-rich bands remains relatively unchanged, but the mechanical modulus of the bands decreases distinctly. These electrical and mechanical factors may contribute to performance improvement, with carbon bands serving as a mechanical buffer for Si deformation and providing electrical conduction pathways. This work motivates future efforts to engineer similar morphologies for mitigating capacity loss in silicon electrodes.

Collagen‐Mediated Solvent Sheathing and Derived Interfacial Manipulation Toward Ultrahigh‐Rate Zn Anodes

AbstractThe zinc (Zn) anode in zinc‐ion batteries suffers from potential defects such as wild dendrite growth, severe Zn corrosion, and violent hydrogen evolution reaction, inducing erratic interfacial charge transfer kinetics, which eventually leads to electrochemical failure. Here, collagen, a biomacromolecule, is added to achieve the reconstruction of the electrolyte hydrogen‐bonding network and the modification of the derived Zn interface. Benefiting from the electronegativity advantage of amino groups (‐NH2) in collagen, the Zn (002) crystal plane is preferentially exposed and the solid electrolyte interface (SEI) rich in ZnF2 and Zn3N2 promotes the rapid charge transfer of Zn anode. Thence, an impressive cumulative capacity of 7,500 mAh cm−2 at 30 mA cm−2 is achieved and the assembled Zn|VO2 cell exhibited robust cycle reversibility even when subject to a maximum current of 100 A g−1 and an ultra‐long cycle life of 20,000 cycles at 50 A g−1, with a single‐cycle capacity loss as low as 0.0021%. Such a convenient strategy of solvent sheathing regulation and derived interfacial manipulation opening up a promising universal approach toward long‐life and high‐rate Zn anodes.

Efficient recovery of lithium from shale gas wastewater: Fe, Ni, and Al doping of H1.33Mn1.67O4 for improved adsorption capacity and manganese loss reduction

To minimize manganese loss during acid leaching and to enhance the lithium adsorption capacity from shale gas wastewater of H1.33Mn1.67O4, this adsorbent material was doped with metallic elements in this study. Doping was achieved using solid-phase synthesis, resulting first in a Li1.33RXMn1.67−XO4 (R = Fe, Ni, Al) precursor powder through high-temperature calcination. Then, lithium was leached out under acidic environment to obtain the desired H1.33RXMn1.67−XO4 (HMO-R) adsorbents. The equilibrium adsorption capacities of HMO-R powders were measured as 20.7 mg/g, 20.7 mg/g, and 29.0 mg/g, for Fe, Ni, and Al dopants, respectively, surpassing that of the former H1.33Mn1.67O4 (13.7 mg/L). Moreover, an average reduction of manganese loss by 30% for HMO-R was observed during lithium recovery/extraction cycles by acid leaching compared to undoped Li1.33Mn1.67O4. Overall, the doped adsorbent exhibited a stable crystal structure and high adsorption capacity, enhanced stability, performance, and efficiency in cycling experiments with respect to the undoped material.

Revealing the degradation pathways of layered Li-rich oxide cathodes.

Layered lithium-rich transition metal oxides are promising cathode candidates for high-energy-density lithium batteries due to the redox contributions from transition metal cations and oxygen anions. However, their practical application is hindered by gradual capacity fading and voltage decay. Although oxygen loss and phase transformation are recognized as primary factors, the structural deterioration, chemical rearrangement, kinetic and thermodynamic effects remain unclear. Here we integrate analysis of morphological, structural and oxidation state evolution from individual atoms to secondary particles. By performing nanoscale to microscale characterizations, distinct structural change pathways associated with intraparticle heterogeneous reactions are identified. The high level of oxygen defects formed throughout the particle by slow electrochemical activation triggers progressive phase transformation and the formation of nanovoids. Ultrafast lithium (de)intercalation leads to oxygen-distortion-dominated lattice displacement, transition metal ion dissolution and lithium site variation. These inhomogeneous and irreversible structural changes are responsible for the low initial Coulombic efficiency, and ongoing particle cracking and expansion in the subsequent cycles.

Identifying Problematic Phase Transformations in Pb Foil Anodes for Sodium-Ion Batteries

Group IVA elements have aroused attention in sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) due to their Na-storage capability. Among them, Pb is less explored perhaps due to its perceived risks, but its long-standing success in Pb-acid batteries should not be neglected. Together with the well-established recycling procedures, the merits of Pb warrant further investigations as a practical SIB anode. In this work, four intermetallic phases are detected during electrochemical sodiation of Pb, which yields a capacity of ∼460 mAh·g−1 (∼1167 mAh·cm−3) upon the formation of Na15Pb4. When pursuing full capacities, the electrode stops functioning after only 3–4 cycles largely due to electrode physical damage. The reversibility of each phase transformation pair is then assessed to explore the origins of capacity fading. The NaPb/Na9Pb4 transformation shows the worst stability, consistent with the observed structural damage (e.g., cracks and voids). Through bypassing the problematic phase transformations using a partial cycling protocol, the stability of Pb foil anodes is improved, giving 20 cycles with 85% capacity retention. Considering other factors are unoptimized, it is suggested that the Pb-based anodes should not be fully eliminated from the future roadmap of SIBs, as the prospective merits can create value to ensure the management of such materials of concern.

Structural, physicochemical and technofunctional properties of corn gluten meal modified by extrusion

This study aimed to evaluate the influence of sample moisture, extrusion temperature, and extruder screw speed on the hydration properties of corn gluten meal (CG), optimize process condition for the highest protein solubility at pH 7 (PS7) and WAC, and assess the effect of the optimized extrusion process on the structural, chemical, physical, and technofunctional properties of CG proteins. Extrusion was carried out at different sample moisture (20%–40%), temperatures (120–160 °C), and screw speeds (33–117 rpm) using a complete factorial design with two central points. All extrusion conditions resulted in reduced hydration properties. Extrusion with 20% sample moisture, 120 °C and 117 rpm resulted in the lowest loss of water absorption capacity and protein solubility at pH 7 (optimized condition). After optimized extrusion, the GC became darker and showed greater activity and protein emulsifying capacity and lower foaming capacity. Furthermore, CG proteins had reduced solubility at different pHs. Changes in technofunctional properties resulted from changes in protein structure after extrusion. The new protein structure is stabilized by non-covalent bonds (hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions) and disulfide bonds. Extruded corn gluten has the potential to be used as an ingredient in bakery, emulsified meat products, salad dressings, vegetable pates, and desserts.

Unveiling the water sorption kinetics, thermodynamics, and air dehumidification performance of sustainably synthesized metal–organic frameworks

This study focuses on the feasibility of sustainably synthesized MIL-100(Fe) as an alternative to conventional desiccants, such as silica gel and zeolites, which have low adsorption capacity and poor thermal characteristics for air dehumidification. MIL-100(Fe), a metal–organic framework, shows promise due to its excellent adsorption and customizable thermal properties. However, its synthesis typically involves toxic materials and high temperature/pressure conditions, which restrict its bulk production for large-scale applications. This study aims to explore sustainable synthesis methods for MIL-100(Fe) using non-toxic materials and milder reaction conditions and investigate its material characteristics and dehumidification performance. Experimental analyses are carried out to measure adsorption isotherms, kinetics, sorption heat, activation energy, and cyclic stability, and numerical simulations are conducted in COMSOL Multiphysics platform to estimate dehumidification performance. The test results demonstrate that MIL-100(Fe) has a higher water adsorption capacity compared to silica gel, with a unique stepwise adsorption into its two types of mesoporous cages. Increased temperatures cause the adsorption and desorption isotherms to shift towards higher relative humidity levels. The heat of water adsorption and desorption ranges between 2630–2906 kJ/kg and 2763–2848 kJ/kg, respectively. MIL-100(Fe) demonstrates high stability and no significant loss in water uptake capacity. The simulated performance indicate that MIL–100(Fe) has superior reaction rates and is 82 % more effective than the silica gel rotary wheel dehumidifiers.

Duodenal transcriptomics demonstrates signatures of tissue inflammation and immune cell infiltration in children with environmental enteric dysfunction across global centers

BackgroundEnvironmental enteric dysfunction (EED) is an inflammatory condition of the small intestine that is prevalent in children residing in low- and middle-income countries. EED is accompanied by profound histopathologic changes in the small bowel, loss of absorptive capacity, increased intestinal permeability, increased microbial translocation, and nutrient loss. ObjectivesWe sought to identify dysregulated genes and pathways that might underlie pediatric EED. MethodsRNA-sequencing libraries were generated from endoscopically obtained duodenal tissue from undernourished children with EED from 3 prospective cohorts of children with EED. The EED transcriptome was defined in comparison to North American children without EED. Weighted gene coexpression network analysis (WGCNA) was tested for gene modules associated with EED and its histologic features. ResultsThe 1784 upregulated genes in EED were highly enriched for immune and inflammatory processes, including IL-17 and JAK-STAT signaling, and cytokine–cytokine receptor interactions. The 1388 downregulated genes included genes corresponding to xenobiotic metabolism, detoxification, and antioxidant capacities. A gene coexpression module enriched for antimicrobial responses and chemokine activity was significantly associated with villous blunting, goblet cell depletion, and overall histologic severity of EED. ConclusionsThe transcriptome signatures of EED include specific innate and adaptive immune responses that are consistently elevated across study centers, coupled with reduced detoxification and antioxidant capacities. These data may have implications for targeted interventions to improve EED outcomes.

Power capacity enhancement and loss reduction induced by limited solid solubility of Ho 3+ rare-earth substitution in NiCuZn spinel ferrites

Power capacity enhancement and loss reduction induced by limited solid solubility of Ho ³⁺ rare-earth substitution in NiCuZn spinel ferrites

Lithium-rich manganese-based layered oxide cathode materials for lithium-ion batteries modified by MoS2 coatings with two-dimensional graphene-like structures

Lithium-rich manganese-based layered oxide cathode materials (LRMCs) have some unique advantages such as high theoretical capacity (≥ 250 mAh g-1) and high energy density. Therefore, they are deemed as a kind of cathode material for lithium-ion batteries with an excellent prospect of application. However, the redox of oxygen anion is able to generate irreversible lattice oxygen loss, leading to the irreversible loss of capacity, bringing about a sharp drop in working voltage, and seriously restricting the commercialization of LRMCs. In this paper, MoS2 coating with two-dimensional graphene-like structure is coated on the surface of LRMCs material for improving the cycling stability and rate performance of the material. The MoS2 coating can provide a two-dimensional diffusion channel for the migration of lithium-ions, which facilitates the fast release of lithium-ions during cycling process. The results show that the first discharge capacity, initial Coulomb efficiency and rate performance of LRMCs were improved. When the current density is 1C, the first discharge specific capacity of LRMCs@MoS2 reaches 227.69 mAh g-1, and the capacity retention ratio is 84.98% after 100 cycles. When the current density is 5C, it can still provide a discharge specific capacity of 137.87 mAh g-1, demonstrating excellent electrochemical performance. This study comes up a simple and practical idea to realize the modification of cathode materials for high performance lithium-ion batteries.

In-situ TiO2/reduced graphene oxide double-coated LiNi0.5Co0.2Mn0.3O2 microspheres as high-performance Li-ion cathode materials

LiNi0.5Co0.2Mn0.3O2(NCM) layered materials have high energy density and large power density but also exhibit obvious capacity fading and voltage decay during the cycle. A rational surface modification design is reported in this work to address these problems. Herein, tetrabutyl titanate (TBOT) was decomposed into TiO2 by hydrolysis-condensation reaction and high-temperature calcination, thus a homogeneous coating was generated on the surface of NCM. The coating layer of TiO2 stabilizes the crystal structure. Furthermore, rGO and reduced metal (Ni, Co, Ti) would be wrapped on the surface as a highly conductive second coating, which could provide a rapid electron conduction pathway. The dual surface-modified cathode shows an outstanding discharge capacity of 163.4 mAh g-1 at 0.2C and 120 mAh g-1 at 10C. This dual coating strategy provides valuable insights for further study on the modification mechanisms of other layered cathode materials.

Protic Stabilization Engenders High Energy Density and Long Cycle Life in Polyaniline–Zinc Supercapacitors

The redox activities of polyaniline (PANI) are hindered by the instability of pernigraniline salt (PS) state which degrades into oligo‐aniline. In this work, the use of protic additives is examined to mitigate capacity fading and increase utilization of PANI in nonaqueous electrolytes. The protic additive propylene glycol, with its hydrogen‐bonding capabilities, stabilizes the PS PANI and promotes reversible redox reactions, facilitating high capacity and an extended cycle lifetime for applications in metal ion supercapacitors. The use of this protic nonaqueous electrolyte in a PANI–zinc device results in an energy density of 255 Wh kg−1 at a power density of 1.8 kW kg−1 and a robust cycle lifetime of 3,850 charge/discharge cycles. The PANI at a high current density of 6.5 mA cm−2 reaches a capacity of 257 mAh g−1, equivalent to 87% of the its theoretical capacity, showcasing the effectiveness of the protic additive in improving both capacity and cycle life in electrochemical supercapacitors.

Control of N/P ratios and cut-off voltage for Silicon-Based Li-ion batteries

High-energy density and unwavering safety standards form the cornerstone of new energy vehicle development, necessitating the design of power batteries that seamlessly integrate these critical qualities. Key to this endeavor is the enhancement of energy density at the architectural level, focusing on the optimization of the N/P ratio—a move that demands a holistic evaluation extending beyond mere comparisons of cathode and anode capacities to include initial efficiency, and both reversible and irreversible capacities. Departing from traditional N/P ratio designs requires meticulous optimization. This research introduces a novel N/P ratio design methodology, termed the “Water Cup Model”, for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), effectively addressing capacity loss issues endemic to conventional designs. This approach, under consistent cathode material and areal capacity conditions, increases the batteries’ specific energy by approximately 5 Wh/kg, without compromising safety. Further innovation is achieved by incorporating a voltage regulation coefficient, λ, allowing for precise adjustment of the cut-off discharge voltage and facilitating the selection of high-performance silicon-based anode materials. Comparative assessments of energy density and cycling performance affirm the superiority of our optimized N/P ratio strategy against conventional methods. This strategy’s core lies in its capacity to significantly boost energy density without extensive modifications to the battery’s internal makeup, relying solely on the precise management of the N/P ratio to ensure safety is not compromised by energy density enhancements. This seminal work lays down a cost-effective, robust framework for advancing high-performance LIB technology, contributing pivotal insights to the field.

Design and performance analysis of compact quad‐band two‐port sickle‐shaped MIMO antenna for wireless applications

AbstractIn this research, a quad‐band sickle‐shaped MIMO antenna of compact size 32 × 32 mm2 (0.28λ0 × 0.28λ0 at lower resonant frequency 2.6 GHz) has been proposed using partial ground and tilted isolation stub at an angle of 45°. It covers 2.40 to 2.80 GHz frequency range with bandwidth (BW) of 15.38% (0.40 GHz) which is applicable for Wi‐Fi application in first band and in second band it covers from 4.48 to 5.75 GHz frequency range with BW of 24.83% (1.27 GHz) for WLAN application. In addition, the third band starts from 9.75 to 10.43 GHz frequency range with BW of 6.74% (0.68 GHz) for the X‐band whereas in fourth band it covers from 13.07 to 15.87 GHz frequency range with BW of 19.38% (2.8 GHz) frequency, which is applicable on Ku‐band application. Moreover, the isolation is &lt; −15 dB in the entire resonating frequency band which is an acceptable limit for reduction of mutual coupling. ECC value is &lt;0.5 in the entire operating band of frequency. The diversity gain of the proposed MIMO antenna is approximately 9.96 dB that shows the antenna exhibits good diversity property. The channel capacity loss value is &lt;0.4 bps/s/Hz in the entire resonating band. In view of all the diversity parameters, the proposed MIMO structure fulfills all the requirements of the MIMO antenna.

An alumina phase induced composite transition shuttle to stabilize carbon capture cycles

Limiting global warming to 1.5-2 °C requires a 50-90% reduction in CO2 emissions in 2050, depending on different scenarios, and carbon capture, utilization, and storage is a promising technology that can help reach this objective. Calcium oxide (CaO) carbon capture is an appealing choice because of its affordability, large potential capacity, and ability to withstand the high temperatures of flue gases. However, the structural instability and capacity fading challenge its large-scale industrial applications. Here, we design a reversible reaction shuttle in CaO-based sorbents to improve the structure stability by changing the initial alumina phases. Diverse alumina phases (x-Al2O3) are first synthesized and utilized as the aluminum source for creating CaO@x-Al2O3 composites. As expected, the CaO@δ-Al2O3 composite demonstrates a carbon capture capacity of 0.43 g-CO2/g-sorbent after 50 cycles, with an impressive capacity retention of 82.7%. Combined characterizations and calculations reveal that this stability improvement is attributed to a transition shuttle between Ca3Al2O6 and Ca5Al6O14, which can effectively restrain the complete decompositions of those structure-stabilized intermediate phases. An economic assessment further identifies the significance of heat transfer efficiency improvement upon cycles, and control of capital/operation cost, energy price and carbon tax for a future cost-effective commercialization of current strategy.