Vehicle On-board Unit Research Articles

L-CPPA: Lattice-based conditional privacy-preserving authentication scheme for fog computing with 5G-enabled vehicular system.

The role that vehicular fog computing based on the Fifth Generation (5G) can play in improving traffic management and motorist safety is growing quickly. The use of wireless technology within a vehicle raises issues of confidentiality and safety. Such concerns are optimal targets for conditional privacy-preserving authentication (CPPA) methods. However, current CPPA-based systems face a challenge when subjected to attacks from quantum computers. Because of the need for security and anti-piracy features in fog computing when using a 5G-enabled vehicle system, the L-CPPA scheme is proposed in this article. Using a fog server, secret keys are generated and transmitted to each registered car via a 5G-Base Station (5G-BS) in the proposed L-CPPA system. In the proposed L-CPPA method, the trusted authority, rather than the vehicle's Onboard Unit (OBU), stores the vehicle's master secret data to each fog server. Finally, the computation cost of the suggested L-CPPA system regards message signing, single verification and batch verification is 694.161 ms, 60.118 ms, and 1348.218 ms, respectively. Meanwhile, the communication cost is 7757 bytes.

DRL-assisted delay optimized task offloading in automotive-industry 5.0 based VECNs

The rapid growth of Automotive-Industry 5.0 and its emergence with beyond fifth-generation (B5G) communications, is making vehicular edge computing networks (VECNs) increasingly complex. The latency constraints of modern automotive applications make it difficult to run complex applications on vehicle on-board units (OBUs). While multi-access edge computing (MEC) can facilitate task offloading to execute these applications, it is still a challenge to access them promptly and optimally. Traditional algorithms struggle to guarantee accuracy in such dynamic environment, but deep reinforcement learning (DRL) methods offer improved accuracy, robustness, and real-time decision-making capabilities. In this paper, we propose a DRL-based mobility, contact, and load aware cooperative task offloading (DCTO) scheme. DCTO is designed for both cellular and mmWave radio access technologies (RATs), and both binary and partial offloading mechanisms. DCTO targets delay minimization by opportunistically switching RATs and offloading mechanisms. We consider relative efficacy and neutrality factors as key performance indicators and use them to derive the DRL agent’s reward function. Extensive evaluations demonstrate that the DCTO scheme exhibits a substantial enhancement in task success rate, with an increase from 2.61% to 21.34%. It also improves the efficacy factor from 1.38 to 3.52 and reduces the neutrality factor from 4.99 to 0.76. Furthermore, the average task processing time is reduced by a range of 3.77% to 24.15%. Additionally, the DCTO scheme outperforms the other evaluated schemes in terms of reward and TFPS ratio.

Parallel implementation of CRYSTALS-Dilithium for effective signing and verification in autonomous driving environment

In the autonomous driving environment, each vehicle performs numerous signing and verification while sending and receiving BSMs (Basic Security Messages) in real-time. We present an optimized CRYSTALS-Dilithium software which can quickly process each signing and verification in parallel using embedded Graphic Processing Unit. For efficiency, we propose several optimization techniques such as dummy operation-based warp divergence reducing technique, parallel implementation NTT (Number Theoretic Transform)-based polynomial multiplication, optimization of rejection sampling process using rejection sequence table, and so on. The proposed CRYSTALS-Dilithium software provides a performance improvement of up to 19.41 times compared to the Dilithium Software on CPUs on NVIDIA Jetson AGX Xavier which is an off-the-shelf autonomous vehicle OBU (On-Board Unit).

Implementation and Performance Analysis of Elliptic Curve Cryptography using an Efficient Multiplier

In Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC), modular multiplication in a finite field is a resource-consuming operation. The design of an efficient multiplier for ECC implementation in FPGA is an ever-evolving research problem. In this paper, we provide an efficient implementation of ECC for GF (2<SUP>233</SUP>) in FPGA. We propose a hybrid Karatsuba multiplier which is found to be occupying lesser slices compared to other optimized Karatsuba multiplier in [1]. This, in turn, amends the efficiency of the ECC processor in the FPGA platform. The proposed processor is implemented in ZedBoard containing Xilinx XC7Z020-1CLG484C Zynq-7000 AP SoC. In comparison with other similar works, the implementation results of ECC show consequential competitiveness in hardware efficiency and we obtain an efficient multiplier and ECC processor realized in FPGA. From the application point of view, ZedBoard has an ARM Processor and hence this can be utilized in vehicle On-Board Units (OBU) because of its lightweight properties.

Secure VANET Authentication Protocol (SVAP) Using Chebyshev Chaotic Maps for Emergency Conditions

It is crucial to support emergency applications provided by vehicular adhoc network (VANET) through enabling vehicles to quickly access to the infrastructure and consequently request rescue services. Additionally, the communication channels between vehicles and the infrastructure lack various security features due to the inferior wireless characteristics of their environment. However, most of the existing authentication schemes which are used to fix the security drawbacks lead to heavy computations and large storage burdens on the vehicle onboard unit (OBU). These schemes utilize secure channels while distributing the network parameters between the various participants. Yet, it is not efficient to establish secure channels during the interactions between entities. Furthermore, lightweight cryptography is an efficient security solution which is adequate for OBU to maintain a reasonable efficiency with low computational and communication costs. Two basic demerits for lightweight authentication protocols are highlighted as follows: Firstly, symmetric key-based authentication protocols dismiss achieving non-repudiation feature, leading to several security attacks in VANET. Secondly, public key-based authentication schemes are relied on elliptic curve cryptography (ECC) which makes the protocol implementation more difficult. Hence, this paper introduces a novel authentication protocol that utilizes Chebyshev chaotic maps to secure connectivity between the vehicles and infrastructure without using secure channels to distribute the network parameters. The new protocol combines the concept of the symmetric key cryptography with the public key signature to satisfy both the lightweight property and non-repudiation feature. Thus, this protocol introduces a novel network model which is the lowest hardware complexity, compared with others. The performance analysis is performed by Wolfram Mathematica, proving that the proposed protocol is superior in terms of security and performance aspects; its computation and storage costs of OBU are enhanced with 24.09&#x0025; and 16.99&#x0025;, respectively, compared to the most competing scheme. Besides, the Scyther simulation confirms the security of the protocol.

HERMES: Scalable, Secure, and Privacy-Enhancing Vehicular Sharing-Access System

We propose HERMES, a scalable, secure, and privacy-enhancing system for users to share and access vehicles. HERMES securely outsources operations of vehicle access token (AT) generation to a set of untrusted servers. It builds on an earlier proposal, namely, SePCAR, and extends the system design for improved efficiency and scalability. To cater to system and user needs for secure and private computations, HERMES utilizes and combines several cryptographic primitives with secure multiparty computation (MPC) efficiently. It conceals secret keys of vehicles and transaction details from the servers, including vehicle booking details, AT information, and user and vehicle identities. It also provides user accountability in case of disputes. Besides, we provide semantic security analysis and prove that HERMES meets its security and privacy requirements. Last but not least, we demonstrate that HERMES is efficient and, in contrast to SePCAR, scales to a large number of users and vehicles, making it practical for real-world deployments. We build our evaluations with two different MPC protocols: 1) HtMAC-MiMC and 2) CBC-MAC-AES. Our results demonstrate that HERMES is in the range of milliseconds for generating an AT, whether it operates for a single-vehicle owner or a large rental-company branch with over 1000 vehicles; handling 546 and 84 AT generations per second, respectively. As a result, HERMES is an order of magnitude faster compared to SePCAR. Specifically, it delivers 696 (with HtMAC-MiMC) and 42 (with CBC-MAC-AES) more ATs compared to in SePCAR for a single-vehicle owner AT generation. Furthermore, we show that HERMES is practical on the vehicle side, too, as AT operations performed on a prototype vehicle on-board unit take only <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$\approx 62 $ </tex-math></inline-formula> ms.

Architecture and key terminal technologies of 5G-based internet of vehicles

Cellular Vehicle-to-Everything technology (C-V2X) is one of the important technical means to fulfill the Internet of Vehicles (IoV) services. Several standards organizations around the world have carried out research on C-V2X key technologies, network architectures and service application scenarios. The development of the IoV has put forward more requirements for 5G broadband mobile networks in terms of high bandwidth, low latency, high concurrency, low power consumption, and heterogeneous network compatibility. This paper attempts to study the IoV architecture and key terminal units such as on-board unit (OBU) design and road side unit (RSU) based on 5G and C-V2X technology. It first introduces the development of IoV technology and standards, and analyzes the existing IoV architecture design. The vehicle OBU design and RSU service design were finally proposed and described in detail.

Impact of GPS Interference on Time Synchronization of DVB-T Transmitters

Nowadays, the Global Positioning System (GPS) is widely used in all aspects of our lives. GPS signals are not used only in positioning and navigation applications and services in transport and military, but, thanks to quite precise information about time, also for synchronization of world trade and synchronization of wireless transmitters. However, with the recent spread of location-based services, a large number of GPS jammers had appeared. Use of these jammers is prohibited by law; however, their use is gaining popularity especially in the transport segment since jammers can be used to trick vehicle onboard units and help avoid paying toll fees on highways or avoid tracking of company cars when used privately. In this paper, we will investigate the impact of GPS interference caused by jamming and spoofing on the synchronization of Single Frequency Network (SFN) Digital Video Broadcasting–Terrestrial (DVB-T) transmitters. Since GPS signals are used in the DVB-T SFN to provide synchronization which is crucial for the correct network operation, the interference of GPS signals can cause problems with signal distribution. Thus, signals received from a DVB-T SFN network might be out of synchronization and disrupt the service for users.

Delay Aware Accident Detection and Response System Using IoT

Vehicle to vehicle communication and vehicle to roadside sensor communication are introduced with the help of hybrid ITS safety architecture.It require major investments for installation, purchase and maintenance for implementation. It represents a costbeneficial solution and can leverage the deployment of the system as a whole for roadside wireless sensor and networking technology . This paper proposepostaccident inquiry and accident precaution. A framework and convention engineering with a completely disseminated idea for secure capacity of sensor information and proficient is incorporated. This is the blend of information stockpiling and committed side of the road units as an incorporated organization component for correspondence for arrangement. At last, it depicts the product stages for vehicle on-board units and sensor hubs. model execution and exploratory proving ground including equipment.

Formula omitted]: Privacy-preserving localized hybrid authentication scheme for large scale vehicular ad hoc networks

Existing authentication schemes for vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs) are not scalable to high-density and safety-critical VANETs. These schemes ignore the very important and unique VANET characteristics such as frequent path disconnections due to high-mobility, bandwidth-limited channel, applications entailing ultra-low latency, high channel-error rate, etc., in their design. Specifically, their approach of entrusting the job of issuing signing key material to remote trusted authorities introduces centralized dependency and high latency for vehicles requesting the key material. Furthermore, acquiring or frequently updating the key material demands substantial network resources including high bandwidth as well as longer and frequent connections to remote authorities. In this paper, we propose a novel and efficient privacy-preserving localized hybrid authentication scheme (PLHAS) modeled on two public key cryptosystems: PKI and CL-PKC. We distribute the key management task among multiple PKI-certified local semi-trusted road-side units (RSUs) to minimize centralized dependency, and entrust identity management to a central Transport Registration Authority (TRA) to ensure role separation. We further reduce the dependency on RSUs and TRA by offloading their tasks of supplying the signing key material. Instead, vehicle's on-board unit (OBU) derives it locally from minimal long-term secret keys acquired from TRA and a local RSU. Besides, vehicles utilize a novel efficient certificate-less signature (CLS) scheme to authenticate their outgoing messages. To protect the long-term secret keys from possible side-channel leakage attacks on OBU, we fashion our critical cryptographic operations in such a manner that bounds and randomizes the leakage of secret keys. Considering the multiple semi-trusted authority setup, we also propose a modified adversarial model for CLS scheme, and show that PLHAS is provably secure, in random oracle model, against modified Type-I/II forgery attacks, certificate forgery attack and vehicle impersonation attack. The results obtained from extensive performance analysis also confirm its efficient nature as compared to the related authentication schemes.

A Multi-criteria based handover algorithm for vehicle-to-infrastructure communications

Maintaining seamless quality of service (QoS) requirements for ongoing delay sensitive applications during handover processes for Vehicle-to-Infrastructure (V2I) communication over heterogeneous networks is a challenging task. The situation becomes even more challenging to deal with for multi-tier heterogeneous networks with various network sizes. To overcome the above challenges, we propose a multicriteria-based handover algorithm for V2I communications (V2I-MHA) to be used in multi-tier heterogeneous network environments. V2I-MHA selects the most appropriate underlying target network for handover based on QoS profiles of the ongoing applications and services. Moreover, our proposed algorithm filters out the inappropriate candidate networks using a multi-criteria decision-making technique based on Simple Additive Weighting (SAW) approach. However, our approach ensures that the most appropriate candidate network for handover processes is selected not only based on QoS requirements of the ongoing applications, but also on the knowledge of candidate network parameters (e.g. bandwidth, packet latency, packet losses, and service pricing). A multi-mode vehicle On-Board Unit (OBU) containing Long Term Evolution-Advanced (LTE-A) and Wi-Fi network interface cards is developed in the Riverbed (previously OPNET) simulator for system performance evaluation. The simulation results show that the proposed V2I-MHA outperforms (in terms of handover failure rate and packet losses) the existing handover methods.

Prototype to Increase Crosswalk Safety by Integrating Computer Vision with ITS-G5 Technologies

Human errors are probably the main cause of car accidents, and this type of vehicle is one of the most dangerous forms of transport for people. The danger comes from the fact that on public roads there are simultaneously different types of actors (drivers, pedestrians or cyclists) and many objects that change their position over time, making difficult to predict their immediate movements. The intelligent transport system (ITS-G5) standard specifies the European communication technologies and protocols to assist public road users, providing them with relevant information. The scientific community is developing ITS-G5 applications for various purposes, among which is the increasing of pedestrian safety. This paper describes the developed work to implement an ITS-G5 prototype that aims at the increasing of pedestrian and driver safety in the vicinity of a pedestrian crosswalk by sending ITS-G5 decentralized environmental notification messages (DENM) to the vehicles. These messages are analyzed, and if they are relevant, they are presented to the driver through a car’s onboard infotainment system. This alert allows the driver to take safety precautions to prevent accidents. The implemented prototype was tested in a controlled environment pedestrian crosswalk. The results showed the capacity of the prototype for detecting pedestrians, suitable message sending, the reception and processing on a vehicle onboard unit (OBU) module and its presentation on the car onboard infotainment system.

Operational Evaluation of Effectiveness of Connected Vehicle Smartphone Technology on a Signalized Corridor

Various connected vehicle (CV) technology applications reported in current literature have the potential to solve the challenges faced by the transportation sector. Over the last decade, extensive research efforts have focused on performance evaluation and the benefits of innovative CV applications; findings indicate that CV technology can effectively mitigate the safety, mobility, and environmental challenges experienced on today’s transportation networks. The majority of previous research has evaluated CV technology through simulation studies. However, a field study is the ideal method of assessing CV technology effectiveness. Field observational studies to validate previous research findings have not been conducted. Therefore, a field study to obtain the actual effectiveness of CV technology was warranted, not only to validate previous findings, but to add to the body of knowledge surrounding this topic. This research presents a field study evaluation of the effectiveness of CV smartphone technology on a 1.1-mi segment of State Road 121, containing five intersections, in Gainesville, Florida. Field observations were conducted using a CV application that uses a smartphone application, EnLighten (Connected Signals, Inc., Oregon, United States), to communicate intersection information to a driver’s smartphone, which serves as a vehicle on-board unit. Traffic operation performance was evaluated using a start-up lost time and discharge distribution model. Findings showed that the CV smartphone technology improved intersection performance with a reduction in start-up lost time of approximately 86%. The CV technology had no impact on the distribution model of position-dependent discharge headways.

Stealthy Monitoring and Control of Vehicle Safety System

In recent times, traffic rules are more often violated by the drivers. And, also driving at high speed needs to be controlled. So, stealthy monitoring and control of the vehicle is required. Sometimes it is not possible to see the boards and traffic symbols kept alongside of the road. The main objective of this paper is to design and develop an efficient system that can effectively detect speed violations on the road using RF technology. The proposed system gives an alert to the driver through LCD and voice boards. In the proposed system, if over speeding vehicles don’t get controlled manually, then the system turns ON and will get controlled automatically and detect any vehicle opposite to, utilizing the vehicle on-board unit. The challenges to overcome include GSM-based Accident/Panic alert using ARDUINO mega.

Anonymous Counting Problem in Trust Level Warning System for VANET

Using vehicular ad-hoc network, smart vehicles can detect dangerous events on the road and announce warnings to other vehicles to ensure road safety. The other vehicles nearby may receive the warning messages and accordingly choose a different route. But, because of the presence of malicious users on the road and errors in the detection system, some warning messages may prove dubious. Therefore, to distinguish between genuine and dubious messages, an element of trust has to be infused into the warning system. One common approach for this is to enable the receivers count the popularity of the reports of a warning event, i.e., the trust level. Once the trust level meets a predefined threshold, the vehicle's on-board unit will trust the warning event and warn the driver. Yet, owing to security and privacy concerns, anonymous counting problem does exist, because it is hard to fulfill both anonymity and counting requirements. In this paper, the authors define the anonymous counting problem and then propose a conditional distinguishable pseudo identities scheme that achieves conditional anonymity to overcome the counting problem. To achieve this feature of pseudo identities, time slot was added to minimize the influence of the adversary. Randomized batch verification was applied to enhance efficiency. Furthermore, it is shown how to achieve those features and provide proof on pairing equations. Finally, the time complexity of the proposed scheme was analyzed and its performance evaluated by Simulation of Urban Mobility.

A network selection method for handover in vehicle-to-infrastructure communications in multi-tier networks

Network selection is very important for a successful handover in a multi-tier heterogeneous networks. However, the primary challenges currently faced by research community is the lack of availability of network information at the mobile node side for efficiently select the most appropriate target network. It is practically difficult for an UE to get network information from base stations/access point of the neighbouring networks before connecting to them. In response to this, this paper proposes a network selection method that applies the knowledge of mobility data and the network load information to carry out an efficient handover for vehicle-to-infrastructure communication over multi-tier heterogeneous networks. We first derive key parameters, such as relative direction index, proximity index, residence time index, and network load index to select the best candidate network. A moving vehicle would be able to select the most appropriate target network by selecting one or more of the above parameters. We then test our algorithms by developing a dual mode vehicle On-Board Unit equipped with both Long Term Evolution-Advanced (LTE-A) and Wi-Fi network interface cards in OPNET simulator. The performance of the proposed handover method is evaluated by extensive OPNET-based simulation experiments. In the simulation model, we consider a multi-tier heterogeneous network comprising of a macro and multiple small cells of LTE-A and IEEE 802.11n technologies. Results show that our proposed handover method offers about 50% higher throughput and up to 43% higher packet delivery ratio than the conventional received signal strengths based network selection method.

Real-Time Traffic State Estimation With Connected Vehicles

A novel framework is developed in this paper, to increase the real-time roadway traffic condition assessment accuracy, which integrates connected vehicle technology (CVT) with artificial intelligence (AI) paradigm forming a CVT-AI method. Traffic density is a major indicator of traffic conditions. In this paper, the traffic operational condition is assessed based on traffic density. A simulated network of Interstate 26 in South Carolina is developed to investigate the effectiveness of the method. The assumption is that the vehicle onboard units will forward the CV generated data to the edge devices (e.g., roadside units) for further processing. CV generated distance headway and number of stops, and speed data are used to estimate traffic density. This paper reveals that, with 20% and greater CV penetration levels, the accuracy of the density information with the AI-aided CVT is a minimum of 85%. Moreover, this paper demonstrates that the integrated CVT-AI method yields a higher accuracy with the increase of CV penetration levels. Level of service (LOS) is the indicator of traffic congestion level on highways and is described with traffic density in terms of passenger car/mile/lane for a specific free flow speed. LOS estimated using the CVT-AI density estimation method is compared with the density estimation algorithm used by the Caltrans Performance Measurement System (PeMS), which relies on the occupancy and flow data collected by the freeway inductive loop detectors. With a 10% or more CV penetration, higher accuracy is achieved using the CVT-AI algorithm compared with the PeMS density estimation algorithm.

Modeling and Performance Analysis of Medium Access Control Schemes for Drive-Thru Internet Access Provisioning Systems

Broadband Internet access provisioning in vehicular environments requires establishing on-the-fly connectivity between mobile vehicles and stationary Internet gateways deployed along roadways. The literature encloses various works revolving around vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) communication schemes designed to cater for this objective. In this paper, two novel complexity minimal MAC schemes are proposed for drive-thru Internet (DTI) access provisioning systems. The first of these schemes is called the random vehicle selection (RVS) scheme, and the second is called the least residual residence time (LRT) scheme. A mathematical framework is established with the objective of modeling a vehicle's onboard unit's buffer and evaluating its performance under RVS and LRT, in terms of several quality-of-service metrics. Extensive simulations are conducted for the purpose of verifying the proposed models' validity and accuracy.

A Novel Drive-Thru Internet Channel Access Scheme

This letter proposes a novel and complexity minimal random vehicle selection (RVS) scheme for drive-thru Internet systems. A mathematical framework is established with the objective of modeling a vehicle's onboard unit's buffer and evaluating its performance under RVS in terms of several quality-of-service metrics. Extensive simulations are conducted to verify the proposed model's validity and accuracy.

A Flexible Architecture for Managing Vehicle Sharing Systems

Vehicle sharing systems are the key to sustainable mobility. They need to possess adaptation features to answer the different user needs, and must be automated to avoid intermediaries between users and system. Finally, they must be based on a wide variety of vehicles and on an open ownership model to become a viable alternative to private vehicles. This letter presents the solution devised in the Green Move project to tackle this challenge. In particular, it focuses on the Green Move vehicle on-board units, for which a dedicated middleware is being developed. The middleware allows developers to create applications that can be dynamically loaded/unloaded while preserving the needed safety levels of the vehicle motion functions.