Vegetable Oil Extraction Research Articles

Thermal Properties of Seed Cake Biomasses and Their Valorisation by Torrefaction

Seed cakes, by-products from the cold press extraction of vegetable oils, are valuable animal feed supplements due to their high content of proteins, carbohydrates, and minerals. However, the presence of anti-nutrients, as well as the rancidification and development of aflatoxins, can impede their intended use, requiring alternative treatment and valorisation methods. Thermal treatment as a procedure for the conversion of seed cakes from walnuts, hemp, pumpkin, flax, and sunflower into valuable products or energy has been investigated in this paper. Thermogravimetry shows the particular behaviour of seed cakes, with several degradation stages at around 230–280 and 340–390 °C, before and after the typical degradation of cellulose. These are related to the volatilisation of fatty acids, which are either free or bonded as triglycerides, and with the thermal degradation of proteins. Torrefaction at 250 °C produced ~75–82 wt% solids, with high calorific values of 24–26 kJ/g and an energy yield above 90%. The liquid products have a complex composition, with most parts of the compounds partitioning between the aqueous phase (strongly dominant) and the oily one (present in traces). The structural components of seed cakes (hemicelluloses, cellulose, and lignin) produce acetic acid, hydroxy ketones, furans, and phenols. In addition to these, most compounds are nitrogen-containing aromatic compounds from the degradation of protein components, which are highly present in seed cakes.

Optimization and extraction of annatto pigments obtained from Bixa orellana L. using supercritical fluid extraction

Traditionally, various techniques like water, vegetable oil, and solvent extraction are used to extract annatto pigments, a natural coloring agent derived from the Bixa orellana L. shrub. These traditional extraction methods can be time consuming and yield minimal pigment concentrations. This study explores an innovative approach to extract the maximum pigments from the annatto seed using supercritical fluid extraction (SFE). Fresh, extracted aqueous, and peeled samples of annatto powder were used at different temperatures (40, 45, and 50 °C) using different solvents of ethanol, methanol, and ethyl acetate with 99 % purity. The optimal extraction condition in supercritical fluid extraction is obtained with an aqueous sample treated with methanol solvent at 45 °C that yields 4.62 % norbixin, 2.49 % bixin, and a hue angle of 24.85⁰, achieving a high desirability value (0.949). Response surface method (RSM) was used to optimize the extraction procedure to obtain a higher yield of annatto pigments. In addition, for optimized conditions, the total phenols and antioxidants assay yielded 3.8 mg GAE/g and 51 % inhibition. HPLC analysis confirmed norbixin in the extracts obtained with a retention time of 38.40 min. This method offers a significant boost in pigment extraction efficiency, but also minimizes processing time. These combined advantages position it as a potentially superior approach for producing annatto pigments with enhanced concentration and purity.

Liquefied dimethyl ether as alternative extraction solvent for high γ-oryzanol rice bran oil: Systematic HSP theory and experimental evaluation

This study aimed to systematically find an alternative solvent to replace hexane for the extraction of bio-oil with high γ-oryzanol content from rice bran (RB). The selection involved predicting solubility through Hansen solubility theory, experimental validation, determination of suitable extraction conditions, and comparison of oil quality with that of conventional hexane. A wide variety of solvents: subcritical water (SCW), supercritical carbon dioxide (SCCO2), bio-based solvents (alcohols and terpenes), and liquefied dimethyl ether (LDME), were initially assessed for rice bran oil (RBO) and γ-oryzanol solubility using Hansen solubility spheres. Solvents demonstrating high solubility for both RBO and γ-oryzanol, including LDME, ethyl acetate, acetone, and others (alcohols and SCCO2) known for effective vegetable oil extraction, were selected/identified for experimental extraction comparison. Among these, LDME performed better overall, affording greater solubility and requiring less solvent, shorter duration, lower pressure, and no additional co-solvents for equivalent extractions. Optimal conditions for LDME extraction were identified as 30 °C with a solvent-to-sample ratio of 10 mL/g and an extraction time of 10 min. Oils extracted with LDME and hexane displayed similar fatty acid compositions and no adverse effects on RB protein and carbohydrate structures after LDME extraction were observed. This study demonstrates LDME as a promising alternative to replace hexane for RBO extraction to further valorize this abundant low-cost RB residue into bio-oil and its γ-oryzanol and de-oil RB co-products.

Integrated membrane process for pretreating and desolventizing hexane-soybean oil miscella – A pilot plant study

The study aimed to develop a membrane desolventizing technology for solvent recovery in vegetable oil extraction. Pretreatment of crude miscella is a prerequisite for an organic solvent nanofiltration (OSN) based desolventizing process. Solvent-resistant ultrafiltration (SRUF) membrane employed in micelle-enhanced ultrafiltration (MEUF) of hexane-crude soybean oil miscella displayed high phospholipids (PL) rejection (98.5 %) and productivity (∼28 L/m2/h), accompanied with a moderate oil rejection (∼22 %). The PL-rich retentate fraction was alkali-treated to recover the oil in the stream (8.8 %). This complementary pretreatment approach met the quality requirements and maximized the yield of treated oil (>98 %) while reducing the chemicals in the process. A subsequent two-stage desolventizing of MEUF-treated miscella with solvent-resistant nanofiltration (SRNF) membrane reduced the oil-in-permeate to 1.37 %, achieving the set recycling criteria (<2 %). The results obtained from the pilot scale study (batch size 40 kg of crude miscella) revealed that the MEUF met the pretreatment requirements, and the subsequent OSN process recovered ∼63 % of hexane through a non-thermal route for recycling in the extraction process. The pilot-scale evaluation demonstrated the technical feasibility of the proposed membrane desolventizing process employing indigenous spiral-wound SRUF and SRNF membrane modules.

Pulsed electric field treatment improves the oil yield, quality, and antioxidant activity of virgin olive oil

Pulsed electric field (PEF) is an innovative technique used to assist in the extraction of vegetable oils. There has been no research on the effects of PEF on virgin olive oil (VOO) quality and antioxidant activity to date. The present study aimed to analyze the effects of PEF on oil yield, quality, and in vitro antioxidant activity of “Koroneiki” extra virgin olive oil. The results show that the PEF treatment increased the oil yield by 5.6%, but had no significant effect on the saponification value, K232, K270, and ∆K value of the VOO. PEF treatment reduced the oleic acid content by 3.12%, but had no significant effect on the content of palmitic acid, linoleic acid, linolenic acid, arachidonic acid, stearic acid, oleic acid, and palmitic acid. After PEF treatment, the levels of total phenolics, total flavonoids, and oleuropein increased by 7.6%, 18.3% and 76%, respectively. There was no significant effect on the levels of 4 phenolic acids (vanillic acid, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid and cinnamic acid), 2 lignans (lignans and apigenin), hydroxytyrosol, and 3 pigments (lutein, demagnetized chlorophyll, and carotenoids). In addition, PEF treatment significantly increased the content of tocopherols, with α, β, γ, and δ tocopherols increasing by 9.8%, 10.7%, 13.6% and 38.4%, respectively. The free radical scavenging ability of DPPH and ABTS was also improved. In conclusion, the use of PEF significantly increased the yield of VOO oil as well as the levels of total phenolics, total flavonoids, oleuropein, tocopherol, and in vitro antioxidant activity.

COSMO-RS-based assessment of thermodynamic tools in predicting the polar and non-polar solvents efficiency in vegetable oil extraction.

One of the prevalent methods for evaluating separation performance is to predict the interactions of solvent and solute molecules. The infinite dilution activity coefficient, Gibbs free energy, and sigma profiles provided insights into the solubilization of a solute and revealed the intensity of the solution's molecular interactions. The effective thermodynamic tools (infinite dilution activity coefficient, Gibbs free energy) were evaluated for predicting the efficiency of 18 polar and non-polar organic solvents in rubber seed oil (RSO) extraction. An infinite dilution activity coefficient was computed to evaluate the solubility of the rubber seed oil model compound (linoleic acid) in the organic solvents. Gibbs free energy was evaluated to show the energy change associated with the molecules mixing process and forecast the miscibility of linoleic acid molecules in the solvents. Moreover, the study examined the sigma profiles and sigma surfaces of organic solvents and linoleic acid to acquire a deeper insight into their similarities and how they interact molecularly. According to the computational prediction and experimental verification, the thermodynamic properties of Gibbs free energy and activity coefficient proved to be highly effective tools for screening polar and moderately polar solvents, predicting the molecular interactions with solute. Whereas the sigma profile and sigma surface were found to be the most efficient tools for evaluating the efficacy of non-polar solvents. Solvents with moderate polarity, such as tetrahydrofuran and diethyl ether, as well as non-polar solvents like pentane, heptane, and n-hexane, proved to be effective and favorable for oil extraction, resulting in the highest oil yields of approximately 27.0%. Overall, the COSMO-RS method demonstrates its utility in estimating the solubility of RSO in organic solvents, enabling early identification of the most effective solvent. The initial geometry optimization of every component was conducted through density functional theory (DFT) using TmoleX software. A single-point density functional theory (DFT) computation using Becke Perdew 86 (BP86) and the Triple-Zeta Valence Potential (TZVPD) was performed to produce.cosmo files. COSMO-RS calculations were performed by applying the parameterization file BP_TZVPD_FINE_19.ctd using COSMOthermX software. The practical extraction of oil from plant seeds was performed using a sonicator bath to verify the accuracy of the COSMO-RS predictions.

Reusing a residue from the juice industry: extraction of oil from passion fruit seeds and its incorporation into liposomes

AbstractBACKGROUNDPassion fruit seeds are a residue of the pulp and juice production industry and have the potential to be used for the extraction of vegetable oil contained in them, which is rich in bioactive compounds. This work evaluated the extraction of oil using organic solvents (mixtures of hexane–ethanol–water and hexane–methanol–water) and the use of ethanol as an alternative to methanol, which is used in traditional methodologies. Several solvent mixtures were investigated to determine the condition that provides the highest oil yield. Subsequently, liposomes were produced using the ethanol injection method and the influence of oil addition on the physical–chemical characteristics of the nanoparticulated system was evaluated.RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONThe results showed that the highest oil yield was obtained using the mixture of hexane, ethanol and water, indicating the possibility of replacing methanol with a less toxic solvent. In addition, good results were obtained for the incorporation of lipids with passion fruit oil into liposomes, with the best conditions obtained being for lipid concentrations of 4.64 and 6.96 mmol L−1 with 10% and 17% of oil content, respectively. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry (SCI).

Isolation, Production and Characterization of Pectinase Enzyme from Fungal Sources: A Review

Pectin, a plant cell wall polysaccharide, is broken down by the de-esterification, hydrolysis and trans-elimination procedure using the pectinase enzyme. They are also known as pectic enzymes and include the commercial pectinases pectolyase, polygalacturonase, and pectozyme, which have all undergone extensive research. This study aimed to know the procedure of isolation, screening and characterization of pectinase-producing fungi from different food sources and their application in juice extraction, wine clarification, coffee extraction, tea, vegetable oil extraction, cocoa, etc. Pectinase enzymes are obtained naturally by a variety of insects, fungi, yeasts, plants, bacteria, and microorganisms; moreover, animal or human cells cannot make pectinase enzymes. The present review discusses the production, classification, application and microbial sources of the pectinase enzyme.

Physico-Chemical, Textural and Sensory Evaluation of Emulsion Gel Formulated with By-Products from the Vegetable Oil Industry.

The aim of this study was to obtain low fat mayonnaise-like emulsion gels using sesame cake and walnut cake by-products resulting from vegetable oil extraction. The ingredients used to formulate the mayonnaise like emulsion gel samples were corn starch, sesame seed cake (SSC), walnuts seed cake (WSC), lemon juice, sunflower oil, mustard, sugar, salt, gelatin and water. Five different samples were prepared: one control lab sample (M) containing only corn starch and the other ingredients (without SSC and WSC), two samples (SO1 and SO2) with 2 and 4% of SSC (without corn starch and WSC) and two samples (WO1 and WO2) with 2 and 4% of WSC (without corn starch and SSC). Also, an egg-free commercial mayonnaise (CM) was purchased and used for comparison. Physicochemical (fat, protein, moisture, ash, carbohydrate, water activity, emulsion stability, viscosity, density and color), textural (hardness, adhesiveness, springiness, cohesiveness, gumminess and chewiness), and sensory (aspect, color, texture/firmness, flavor, taste and acceptability) attributes of all samples were investigated. The results showed that carbohydrate content decreased in all four seed cakes samples compared to the control sample, while protein and fat content increased in all seed cakes samples, with the largest increases observed in the sesame seed cake samples. It was observed that the CM sample has a carbohydrate content value close to that obtained for the M sample, while the protein content has the lowest value for the CM sample compared to all samples analyzed. The stability of the emulsion gels increased from 70.73% (control sample) to 83.64% for the sample with 2% addition sesame seed cake and to 84.09% for the 2% walnut cake added, due to the coagulation capacity of the added cakes. The type and concentration of oil seeds cake added in emulsion gels affected their textural properties such as hardness, adhesiveness, gumminess, and chewiness. The hardness and adhesiveness of low-fat mayonnaise-like emulsion gels samples decreased with the addition of oil seeds cake. However, the addition of by-products improved the sensory properties of emulsion gels. This study provided a theoretical basis for the food industry's application of oilseed cakes, especially for the development of low-fat mayonnaise.

Comparison of cashew nuts, pistachios, and hazelnuts according to nutritional, biological, and physiological values when justifying the development of new product types

Empirical studies of the chemical composition of nuts and systematization of the obtained data on cashew nuts, hazelnuts, and pistachios were carried out in order to develop new types of products. It has been shown that the fat fractions of cashew nuts, hazelnuts, and pistachios are comparable to oilseeds used for the extraction of vegetable oil. Cashew kernels have an SFA:MUFA:PUFA ratio of 1:3:1, pistachio kernels — 1:4.3:2.5, and hazelnut kernels — 1:10:1.8. PUFAs are represented by ω-6 fatty acids; there are no ω-3 fatty acids and trans isomers. In terms of protein content, nut kernels (cashews — 18 g, hazelnuts — about 16g, pistachios — 20 g) are not inferior to complete protein sources. The comparison of amino acid scores with the amino acid composition of the reference protein (FAO) has shown that the pistachio nut mass corresponds to a complete protein in amino acid composition, while cashews and hazelnuts have one limiting amino acid — lysine. The carbohydrate part of nuts is represented by dietary fi ber, starch, and sugars. A distinctive feature of pistachio nuts is their higher carbohydrate content (27.5 g), as well as the presence of maltose. Hazelnuts, pistachios, and cashews are high in dietary fiber. Introducing nuts into the diet of healthy people has demonstrated that each nut promotes the development of diff erent phyla of the microbiome.

Higher alcohols as cosolvents of mixtures of ethanol and soybean oil: Solubility and physical properties of ternary systems

Mixtures of soybean oil (SO) and ethanol (EtOH) are of interest for several applications, such as the addition of the mixtures to diesel, the production of ethyl esters (ethyl biodiesel) from SO and the extraction of vegetable oils with a renewable solvent. However, the solubility between the components of this mixture is limited, which may hinder the possible applications. Thus, the present study aimed to determine the solubility of mixtures composed of SO and EtOH with the addition of cosolvents, n-butanol (nBut) and isoamyl alcohol (IAA), which are higher alcohols present in fusel oil, a coproduct of the production of EtOH. The physical properties of the ternary mixtures were also determined, which are necessary data for proposing the use of these renewable inputs. The regions of phase separation for the systems were determined using the cloud point method at constant temperature (25, 40 and 55 °C). The physical properties, density (ρ, kg·m−3) and dynamic viscosity (η, mPa·s) were experimentally determined for the binary (EtOH + nBut and EtOH + IAA, temperatures from 20.0 to 70.0 ± 0.1 °C) and ternary (SO + EtOH + nBut and SO + EtOH + IAA, 25.0, 40.0 and 55.0 ± 0.1 °C) mixtures. The experimental ρ data were described mathematically by the simple mixing rule (SMR) and the Jouyban-Acree (JA) model. For the description of η, the modified Kay rule (MKR), the Kendall and Monroe (KM) model, the Grunberg-Nissan (GN) model and the JA model were considered. Regarding the binary mixtures, the SMR and the GN model showed the lowest average relative deviation (ARD) values, 0 to 0.31% for ρ and 0.21 to 5% for η. For the ternary systems, the JA model best described the behavior of both physical properties (ARD from 0.02 to 4.51% for ρ and from 0.85 to 7.14% for η). Both cosolvents enabled the reduction of the immiscibility region, with similar performance in the evaluated temperature range.

AVALIAÇÃO DO DESEMPENHO DE ALGUNS CLONES DE SERINGUEIRA PARA PRODUÇÃO DE MADEIRA

The rubber tree was originally introduced in the State of São Paulo, Brazil, with a view to exploiting natural latex as the main source of income. However, there are some alternatives that may be viable for properties looking to diversify agricultural production. In some Asian countries, timber extraction, seed production for vegetable oil extraction and honey production have been commercially exploited. The exploration of wood has been the most important alternative, extracted when the productive period of the trees ends (25 - 30 years). Rubber tree wood can be used in the furniture industry and in the manufacture of doors, windows and other household items. At the end of their productive life, when it is necessary to replant the area, as the exploitation of latex is no longer viable, the trees have a circumference of 100 - 110 cm (at 125 cm above the ground), being suitable for cutting approximately 300 to 400 trees/ha, with a production of 1 m3 of wood/tree. However, there are some peculiarities in rubber tree wood that should be known. The main objective of this work was to evaluate the wood productive potential of rubber tree clones, as well as the relationship between the rootstocks and the clones in characteristics such as total height, marketable height, DBH (diameter at breast height) and marketable volume of wood. The experiment was carried out at APTA Regional in Pindorama, State of São Paulo, Brazil and the experimental design used was randomized blocks with split plots, with 6 treatments (rootstocks), 6 subtreatments (clones), four replications and 20 plants/plot, with 6 plants useful. The results show that the clone PB 235 is the best for the characteristic total height and commercial height and that the rootstocks RRIM 701, GT-1, PB235 and IAN 873 are the best for the characteristic total height. There was interaction between the different clones and rootstocks tested in terms of total height. Clones PB 235, RRIM 600 and PR 107 are the best for the DAP trait. The rootstocks PB 235, GT-1, IAN 873 and RRIM 701 are the best for the DAP characteristic. Keywords: Hevea brasiliensis. Diameter. Height.

Extraction of Vegetable Oil from Candlenut Seeds (Aleurites Moluccana L. Willd.) Using the Microwave Hydrodiffusion and Gravity (MHG) Method

Extraction of Vegetable Oil from Candlenut Seeds (Aleurites Moluccana L. Willd.) Using the Microwave Hydrodiffusion and Gravity (MHG) Method

In vitro ixodicidal action of a concentrate based on plant oils on rhipicephalus microplus engorged female ticks

R. microplus is an obligate hematophagous ectoparasite of cattle that causes billions of dollars in losses in the global livestock economy and thus we evaluate the efficacy of a concentrate, using vegetable oils on the mortality of engorged female R. microplus ticks. For each group, 15 ticks were used and assigned to four treatments: T1-T4 and a control group (CG), that were not exposed to the extract at all. The ticks were immersed in each treatment for a period of 15 minutes. Upon completion, the specimens were removed from the container and the excess of product was removed using blotting paper. To determine mortality, the ticks were placed in Petri dishes and left to rest inside an extraction hood at 31.6 °C and 56% relative humidity and were observed every 24 hours for seven days. In the T1, mortality was 73% at 48 h post-treatment, while in the T2 - T4 groups, mortality was 100% at 24 h. The result shows that mixed vegetable oil extracts are a viable alternative for the control of R. microplus. We suggest further studies on its efficacy in vitro and in vivo using lower concentrations.

Leading Edge Technologies and Perspectives in Industrial Oilseed Extraction.

With the increase in the world's population and per capita wealth, oil producers must not only increase edible oil production but also meet the demand for a higher quality and variety of products. Recently, the focus has shifted from single processing steps to the entire vegetable oil production process, with an emphasis on introducing innovative technologies to improve quality and production efficiency. In this review, conventional methods of oilseed storage, processing and extraction are presented, as well as innovative processing and extraction techniques. Furthermore, the parameters most affecting the products' yields and quality at the industrial level are critically described. The extensive use of hexane for the extraction of most vegetable oils is undoubtedly the main concern of the whole production process in terms of health, safety and environmental issues. Therefore, special attention is paid to environmentally friendly solvents such as ethanol, supercritical CO2, 2-methyloxolane, water enzymatic extraction, etc. The state of the art in the use of green solvents is described and an objective assessment of their potential for more sustainable industrial processes is proposed.

Molecular dynamics of vegetable oil extraction and degumming: Analysis of micelles and phospholipid bilayers in different solvents

AbstractUnderstanding the molecular‐level mechanisms of vegetable oil extraction and degumming remains limited. This study aimed to investigate these processes using molecular dynamics (MD), with a focus on the challenges associated with replacing n‐hexane with ethanol. MD simulations with a coarse‐grained force field (Martini 3) were conducted to examine the behavior of phospholipid mono/bilayers with and without triacylglycerol in various solvents, including water, absolute and aqueous ethanol (with 0%–10% water content by weight), and n‐hexane. Trilinolein and phospholipids with 16–18 carbon tails and 0–2 unsaturations were considered. The degree of unsaturation and tail size of phospholipids did not significantly affect bilayer formation in water. However, they influenced bilayer organization, as measured by the order parameter, bilayer thickness, and area. The phospholipid bilayer, composed of 1‐palmitoyl‐2‐oleoyl‐sn‐glycero‐3‐phosphocholine (POPC), exhibited a well‐defined structure in water, partial disruption in ethanol, and complete disruption in n‐hexane. The presence of triacylglycerol had no effect on phospholipid monolayers in water but increased lipid disorder in ethanol. Minor amounts of water in ethanol did not significantly alter the behavior of the lipid layers. MD simulations, combined with artificial intelligence, identified and quantified the formation of micelles during the degumming process, both in conjunction with n‐hexane extraction and independently as a function of water concentration. The volume and number of micelles were strongly influenced by the water content. Molecular dynamics in food engineering is relatively limited and scarce because of the complex nature of the systems. However, this study successfully demonstrates its applicability in this context.

Olive and sunflower cakes as suitable substrates for lipase production by Yarrowia spp.: From flasks to bioreactor

Solid state fermentation is a biotechnological process that allows the utilization of agro-industrial by-products as solid substrates for the growth of microorganisms, including filamentous fungi and yeasts, with the simultaneous production of added value compounds, like enzymes. Oil cakes, such as olive and sunflower cakes, are generated during vegetable oil extraction and have received great interest as solid substrates in SSF processes. In the present work, a 50% (w/w) mixture of olive and sunflower cakes was used as substrate in SSF for lipase production by several strains of Y. lipolytica and Y. divulgata. The strain of Y. lipolytica W29 was the best lipase producer under small scale SSF and studies were conducted to address important factors in scaling-up the process. Different bioreactors were used and the effect of aeration and agitation on lipase production was studied. Higher lipase activity was obtained in tray bioreactors, reaching 85 U/g (dry mass of substrates) after 48 h of SSF, while the operation in a horizontal drum bioreactor favored yeast growth, resulting in the highest yeast biomass production and a delay in lipase maximum activity. The scale-up of SSF for lipase production by Y. lipolytica has been successfully performed, showing that SSF is an interesting and eco-friendly bioprocessing strategy for the valorization of by-products from vegetable oil industries.

MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF MEMBRANE MODULE FOR SOLVENT RECOVERY FROM SOYBEAN OIL MISCELLA

A mathematical model was developed to predict the performance of solvent recovery process in the extraction of vegetable oils. The model is oriented to mathematical programming and to be used in the optimization of a biorefinery superstructure. Experimental data published were recompiled for the PVDF-10SI membrane. For the case study, the mathematical model gives much more conservative design results than if the design was made only with punctual experimental data. To concentrate miscella from 25% wt to 38% wt of oil, the required membrane area is 275.22 m2 for the mathematical model, while the design through punctual experimental data gives a membrane area of 224.23 m2. Besides, the mathematical model allows evaluating the separation performance of each of the intervening compounds through their permeabilities. This is an important contribution, since the results obtained using punctual experimental data are not accurate enough for membrane process design in the oils desolventizing.

The role of quantum-chemical descriptors and sigma-profile overlapping of different co-solvents on tuning ethanolic extraction of soybean oil

Co-solvents can significantly improve ethanol efficiency in vegetable oil extraction, making their use a viable, cost-effective, and sustainable alternative to conventional solvents. The challenge, however, is to understand the complex interactions between the solvents and how this can affect the yield and quality of the extracted oil. In this study, the COnductor-like Screening Model with Segment Activity Coefficient and Hansen solubility parameters were combined and used to optimize soybean oil extraction using ethanol along with seven different co-solvents. In parallel, an experimental approach was carried out to verify the accuracy of the models. Both theoretical and empirical results indicated that the oil extraction yield decreased as the co-solvent polarity increased. The best performance in solubilizing non-polar lipids was observed for the mixture of 10 wt% of p-cymene, a non-polar solvent, with 90 wt% ethanol, reaching a yield of 24.35 g/100 g. According to the thermodynamic analysis, the effects of polarity weigh heavily on the standard entropy, which rules the driving force of mass transfer during the extraction. The interaction mechanisms were carefully investigated employing quantum mechanical calculations, revealing how the differences in chemical potential (μ), hardness (η), and electrophilicity (ω) underlie the macroscopic results and rule the efficiency obtained for different solvent ratios and combinations.

A surface plasmon resonance nanostructure containing graphene and BaTiO3 layers for sensitive defection of organic compounds.

Organic compound-based sensors are used in a variety of significant fields, including medical research, azeotropic calibration, vegetable oil extraction, the shoe industry and geothermal power plants. Here, a high-performance, two-dimensional material-based organic compound sensor has been proposed using a surface plasmon resonance (SPR) nanostructure consisting of a BK7 glass prism, Ag, BaTiO3, Ag, graphene and sensing layer. The reflectivity curves of the SPR device have been investigated when the sensing media are Pentane, n-Hexane, n-Heptane and n-Octane. The thickness of the BaTiO3 layer and the number of graphene sheets have been optimized to maximize the sensitivity. The highest sensitivity attained is 220.83 deg/RIU for n-Octane with 45 nm silver/10 nm BaTiO3/8 nm silver and four layers of graphene. We believe that the SPR-based sensors are simple and can replace the spectrometry, chromatography and electrochemical based sensors. The proposed design is extremely effective for diverse applications in biological, industrial and chemical detection because of its simple structure and great performance.