Livestock Vaccination Research Articles

Investigating the adherence factors of Escherichia coli at the bovine recto-anal junction.

E. coli strains that produce Shiga toxin cause foodborne illness in humans but colonize cattle asymptomatically. The molecular mechanisms that E. coli uses to adhere to cattle cells are largely unknown. Various strategies are used to control E. coli in livestock and limit the risk of outbreaks. These include vaccinating animals against common E. coli strains and supplementing their feed with probiotics to reduce the carriage of pathogens. No strategy is completely effective, and probiotics often fail to colonize the animals. We sought to clarify the genes required for E. coli adherence in cattle by quantifying the attachment to bovine cells in a diverse set of bacteria. We also isolated nonpathogenic E. coli from healthy cows and showed that a representative isolate could outcompete pathogenic strains in cocultures. We propose that the focused study of these strains and their adherence factors will better inform the design of probiotics and vaccines for livestock.

Joint Human and Animal Health Campaigns in Chad

Abstract Providing basic health services to nomadic populations is challenging mainly because of their mobility affecting geographical access to essential services but also due to their particular cultural habits and beliefs, influencing health intervention acceptance. The strategy of joint human and animal health campaigns applied in Chad for over 30 years has helped to improve coverage of childhood and livestock vaccination and increased access to disease prevention. The campaigns are organized by the Chadian ministries for public health and livestock, supported by the Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute (Swiss TPH) and its local partners. The use of synergies across sectors intends to reduce costs compared to independent sectoral interventions. The gain lies not only in shared logistics but also in better trust in essential services by pastoralists. Planning of joint interventions should start with a careful assessment of the context through a transdisciplinary approach identifying possible access barriers. This allows multidisciplinary development of mitigation measures such as a locally adapted awareness strategy. The multi-disciplinary approach also provides information on the seasonal movements of the different pastoral groups, which is crucial for the timing and location of interventions. Administrative and technical preparation of the field visits needs concerted efforts by all ministries and partners involved to maximize the benefits. To facilitate the uptake and sustainability of joint campaigns in Chad, the involved partners together developed an implementation guide based on their long-standing experience. This case report draws on this guiding document and showcases it for other actors interested in implementing similar One Health strategies. Information © The Authors 2024

A Lipid Nanoparticle-Formulated Self-Amplifying RNA Rift Valley Fever Vaccine Induces a Robust Humoral Immune Response in Mice.

Rift Valley fever (RVF) is a mosquito-borne viral zoonosis that causes high fetal and neonatal mortality rates in ruminants and sometimes severe to fatal complications like encephalitis and hemorrhagic fever in humans. There is no licensed RVF vaccine for human use while approved livestock vaccines have suboptimal safety or efficacy. We designed self-amplifying RNA (saRNA) RVF vaccines and assessed their humoral immunogenicity in mice. Plasmid DNA encoding the Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) medium (M) segment consensus sequence (WT consensus) and its derivatives mutated to enhance cell membrane expression of the viral surface glycoproteins n (Gn) and c (Gc) were assessed for in vitro expression. The WT consensus and best-expressing derivative (furin-T2A) were cloned into a Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) plasmid DNA replicon and in vitro transcribed into saRNA. The saRNA was formulated in lipid nanoparticles and its humoral immunogenicity in BALB/c mice was assessed. High quantities of dose-dependent RVFV Gn IgG antibodies were detected in the serum of all mice immunized with either WT consensus or furin-T2A saRNA RVF vaccines. Significant RVFV pseudovirus-neutralizing activity was induced in mice immunized with 1 µg or 10 µg of the WT consensus saRNA vaccine. The WT consensus saRNA RVF vaccine warrants further development.

Relationship between Livestock Vaccination Programs and Mortality Rates in India

Purpose: To aim of the study was to analyze the relationship between livestock vaccination programs and mortality rates in India. Methodology: This study adopted a desk methodology. A desk study research design is commonly known as secondary data collection. This is basically collecting data from existing resources preferably because of its low cost advantage as compared to a field research. Our current study looked into already published studies and reports as the data was easily accessed through online journals and libraries. Findings: Vaccination programs for livestock in India significantly reduce mortality rates, particularly in cattle, sheep, and goats. Comprehensive vaccination decreases the incidence of infectious diseases, enhances herd immunity, and improves overall productivity. Regions with strong vaccination coverage see better livestock health and increased farmer livelihoods. Economic analyses show that the benefits of reduced mortality and increased productivity often outweigh the costs, highlighting the need for ongoing investment in veterinary health services and education to promote widespread vaccination. Unique Contribution to Theory, Practice and Policy: Health belief model (HBM), theory of planned behavior (TPB) & diffusion of innovations theory may be used to anchor future studies on the relationship between livestock vaccination programs and mortality rates in India. Practically, there is a need to strengthen the infrastructure for vaccine distribution, especially in remote and underserved areas. Policymakers should develop and enforce policies that support the expansion and optimization of livestock vaccination programs.

Foot and Mouth Disease Vaccine Matching and Post-Vaccination Assessment in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.

Despite the annual vaccination of livestock against foot and mouth disease (FMD) in the United Arab Emirates (UAE), outbreaks of the disease continue to be reported. The effective control of field outbreaks by vaccination requires that the vaccines used are antigenically matched to circulating field FMD viruses. In this study, a vaccine matching analysis was performed using the two-dimensional virus neutralization test (VNT) for three field isolates belonging to the O/ME-SA/PanAsia-2/ANT-10 and O/ME-SA/SA-2018 lineages collected from different FMD outbreaks that occurred within the Abu Dhabi Emirate in 2021 affecting Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx), goat, and sheep. In addition, post-vaccination antibodies in sheep and goats were measured using solid-phase competitive ELISA (SPCE) for FMDV serotypes A and O at five months after a single vaccine dose and a further 28 days later after a second dose of the FMD vaccine. An analysis of vaccine matching revealed that five out of the six vaccine strains tested were antigenically matched to the UAE field isolates, with r1-values ranging between 0.32 and 0.75. These results suggest that the vaccine strains (O-3039 and O1 Manisa) included in the FMD vaccine used in the Abu Dhabi Emirate are likely to provide protection against outbreaks caused by the circulating O/ME-SA/PanAsia-2/ANT-10 and O/ME-SA/SA-2018 lineages. All critical residues at site 1 and site 3 of VP1 were conserved in all isolates, although an analysis of the VP1-encoding sequences revealed 14-16 amino acid substitutions compared to the sequence of the O1 Manisa vaccine strain. This study also reports on the results of post-vaccination monitoring where the immunization coverage rates against FMDV serotypes A and O were 47% and 69% five months after the first dose of the FMD vaccine, and they were increased to 81 and 88%, respectively, 28 days after the second dose of the vaccine. These results reinforce the importance of using a second booster dose to maximize the impact of vaccination. In conclusion, the vaccine strains currently used in Abu Dhabi are antigenically matched to circulating field isolates from two serotype O clades (O/ME-SA/PanAsia-2/ANT-10 sublineage and O/ME-SA/SA-2018 lineage). The bi-annual vaccination schedule for FMD in the Abu Dhabi Emirate has the potential to establish a sufficient herd immunity, especially when complemented by additional biosecurity measures for comprehensive FMD control. These findings are pivotal for the successful implementation of the region's vaccination-based FMD control policy, showing that high vaccination coverage and the wide-spread use of booster doses in susceptible herds is required to achieve a high level of FMDV-specific antibodies in vaccinated animals.

Gender transformative innovation: Women's inclusion in livestock vaccine systems in northern Ghana

CONTEXTOwning livestock can support women's empowerment and progress toward gender-equitable agri-food systems. Gender inequality, however, can reduce women's ownership of livestock and access to animal vaccines. Gender accommodative approaches (GAAs), and more recently gender transformative approaches (GTAs), are increasingly implemented in development interventions. However, their impact on women's empowerment has not been systematically tested. Here, we describe the ‘Women Rear Project’, implemented in northern Ghana between 2019 and 2023, and assess the impact of GTAs and GAAs on women's empowerment, ownership of livestock, and access to animal vaccines. OBJECTIVEWe sought to systematically assess changes conferred by GAAs and GTAs on gender norms and women's empowerment and access to animal vaccines. METHODSUsing a mixed-methods approach, in 2021 and 2023 we collected quantitative and qualitative data regarding women's empowerment, gender norms, and access to animal vaccines. Qualitative data regarding women's and men's conceptualizations of gender norms and women's empowerment were obtained via focus group discussions and key informant interviews. Quantitative survey data were obtained from 500 households, using the Women's Empowerment in Livestock Index (WELI). Quantitative data on livelihood indicators were also collected, using the Rural Household Multi-Indicator Survey (RHoMIS) tool. We systematically assessed changes between baseline (2021) and endline (2023) in local conceptualizations of empowerment in the livestock sector, the effects of GTAs and GAAs on such conceptualizations, and how empowerment was experienced by women and men and the implications for women's access to animal vaccines. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONLocal conceptualizations of empowerment in 2021, among both women and men, emphasized financial independence, decision-making autonomy, self-reliance, and problem-solving skills. In 2023, this conceptualization of empowerment had expanded to include the ability to act without external restrictions; women were empowered by managing resources, running successful businesses, and making decisions in consultation with their husbands. Furthermore, women in communities where GTAs had been enacted scored significantly higher in empowerment compared with women in communities where only GAAs had been introduced. Gender norms impacted empowerment indicators, with respect among household members and autonomy in income both contributing to disempowerment. Gender norms also affected respondents' reporting. Women's access to livestock vaccines was more positive in GTA/GAA communities. We recommend efforts are made to reduce restrictive gender norms and enhance women's empowerment and access to resources such as animal vaccines. SIGNIFICANCEWe offer recommendations for pathways toward women's empowerment and healthy livestock via inclusive innovations in agri-food systems.

Spillover effects of medium- and large-scale farms on smallholder farmers in Tanzania: Evidence from the National Sample Census of Agriculture 2019/20

Tanzania has implemented a number of policies and initiatives to promote the growth of the agricultural sector. Among these are efforts geared toward fostering large-scale farm investments, which is partly premised on the notion that smallholder farmers will also benefit through improved access to factor markets and output markets, better prices, and knowledge transfers. Nevertheless, evidence on such spillover effects is far from clear. To fill this gap, we draw on the 2019/20 National Sample Census of Agriculture to estimate the spillover effects from large and medium-scale farms to smallholder farmers in Tanzania. Using logistic and linear regression models, we find evidence consistent with positive effects from medium-scale farms to smallholder farmers around adoption of improved technologies—particularly the use of improved seeds, organic fertilizer, irrigation, and mechanization—and crop yield. These relationships are more evident for maize farms. We also find evidence consistent with spillover effects from large-scale farms, specifically around the adoption of improved crop technologies and livestock vaccinations. These results add an argument in favor of policies that foster the coexistence of large-, medium-, and small-scale farms.

Women's participation in and benefit from Rift Valley fever livestock vaccine value chain; current situation and barriers in Nyagatare District, Rwanda

Livestock vaccine value chains present opportunities for women's empowerment and income generation. To effectively position women to embrace these opportunities, understanding their current position and the factors that determine their involvement is crucial. This study mapped the actors, governance framework, and women's and men's positions along the value chain. It also analyzed gendered barriers to their participation and benefiting from services, processes, and products from the livestock Rift Valley fever vaccine value chain for livestock in Nyagatare District, Rwanda. Data was collected through 10 focus group discussions, 33 key informant interviews, and 1 stakeholder engagement meeting, while analysis was conducted thematically. Our results show that women's participation as importers, distributors, deliverers, or end-users was low to non-existent. Local gender norms curtailed women's participation and benefit at all nodes through restricted mobility, limited decision-making power, and restricted access to and control over resources. Additional barriers for stakeholders at the end-user node included a lack of knowledge about RVF vaccination in goats and how to demand or access the vaccine. This study recommends challenging persistent and limiting cultural norms through behavioral change communication by engaging men and boys as key actors for gender equality, engendering national and local planning and evaluation frameworks, and accelerating gender transformation in the private sector.

Assessing the potential impact of livestock immunisation and acaricide use on controlling the spread of East Coast fever

Immunisation of livestock with high-quality vaccines and the use of acaricides are highly ranked tick control strategies worldwide. However, the effects of coupling livestock immunisation and acaricide control on mitigating the spread of East Coast Fever (ECF) is not well understood. Effective strategies to curb the disease require an understanding of the influence of control strategies on ECF dynamics. This paper presents a new mathematical model for ECF in ticks and livestock to analyze the effect of livestock immunisation and acaricide control on preventing ECF spread. Our research is focused on examining how vaccine efficacy, inoculation rate, and acaricide efficacy affect disease progression. Our finding is that acaricide control alone may not be sufficient to stop the spread of ECF, even if it has an 80% effectiveness all the time. However, by pairing acaricide control with livestock vaccination, disease transmission is significantly reduced and elimination is possible under certain circumstances. Overall, results show that it is crucial to understand the influence of combining control strategies to mitigate the spread of this devastating livestock disease and enhance decision making among policymakers and livestock keepers.

Spatial clusters of human and livestock anthrax define high-risk areas requiring intervention in Lao Cai Province, Vietnam 1991-2022.

Anthrax, a widespread zoonosis in low and middle-income countries with low disease awareness and insufficient livestock vaccination coverage, has been known in Lao Cai Province in northern Vietnam for years before its apparent absence in 2009, which requires investigation as this infection is frequently reported from neighbouring provinces and countries. We aimed to describe the seasonal patterns of anthrax (1991-2008), compare livestock anthrax vaccine coverage to disease occurrence (1991- 2022), and delineate the high-risk areas to inform local disease surveillance in the province. We illustrated the seasonal pattern of anthrax and provided a comparison between livestock vaccine coverage and disease occurrence by purely spatial SaTScan (Poisson model, 25% population at risk) to detect spatial clusters of human and livestock anthrax using population derived from zonal statistics routines. The number of cases, crude cumulative incidence, and spatial clusters of human and livestock anthrax were mapped in QGIS. Results indicate peak anthrax incidence from May to October. Buffalo, domestic cattle, and horses accounted for 75% of total animal cases. Horse anthrax was more common in Lao Cai than in its neighbours and often occurred in years with human mortality. Vaccination covered less than 30% of the livestock population. We found an apparent pattern where anthrax was controlled from 1998-2003 with higher vaccine coverage (>20%) and identified spatial clusters of human and livestock anthrax in Muong Khuong, Bao Thang, and Bac Ha districts of Lao Cai. The local public health and veterinary agencies are recommended to revisit the high-risk areas and communicate with neighbouring provinces for a regional approach to anthrax surveillance and control.

IJCM_219A: A “One Health” Model for Prevention and Control of Anthrax in Koraput, Odisha, India

Background: Anthrax, a neglected zoonotic disease caused by Bacillus anthracis, poses a significant threat in Odisha, India, particularly in the tribal district of Koraput, which has reported numerous human cases and deaths but lacks consistent robust surveillance. Objectives: This study aimed to pilot a “One Health” surveillance model in Koraput, involving community health workers, para-veterinarians, and block- level teams in outbreak investigations. Methodology: As part of the “One Health Approach to Anthrax Control in India (OHAI)” project Odisha University of Agriculture and Technology (OUAT), in collaboration with the Departments of Animal Husbandry and Health and Family Welfare, Government of Odisha, initiated prospective laboratory-based anthrax surveillance in three blocks of Koraput. Confirmed cases in animals were identified via microscopic, culture, or PCR testing for Bacillus anthracis. Community awareness programs and rapport-building exercises were conducted with human and veterinary officials at the block and district levels following the detection of outbreaks. Results: Between March and June 2023, five anthrax outbreaks were detected in Koraput, with four involving both cutaneous human and animal deaths and one in animals only. Livestock losses included cattle (27), goats (2), and buffalo (1). Of the 38 samples collected (blood, bone, tissue, and soil), 11 (35%) tested positive for anthrax by RT-PCR. OUAT rapidly communicated results (<24 hours) to the state health department, leading to joint investigations and control measures, including livestock vaccination, safe carcass disposal, and medical outreach camps for screening and prophylaxis. In total, five district/block level meetings and two state-level consultations were held, culminating in a zoonotic roadmap draft, which included an anthrax prevention and control action plan. Conclusion: The study’s adoption of the One Health framework facilitated a rapid response to anthrax outbreaks in Koraput, effectively managing both human and animal cases. This model presents a viable approach for controlling anthrax in endemic areas of India.

Molecular epidemiology of foot-and-mouth disease (review)

Molecular epidemiological studies are an important tool for regional and global surveillance of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD). These tests are based on constantly progressing technologies of nucleic acid sequencing and phylogenetic analysis. The use of these technologies made it possible to assess the genetic diversity of the FMD virus, to analyze the evolution of the virus in the enzootic regions, and track the pathways of FMD epizootic and panzootic spread. Molecular epidemiological studies have shown that within the long-known seven serotypes of the FMD virus, there are numerous topotypes (geographical types), genetic lineages and sublineages. Usually, the foot-and-mouth disease virus of a certain topotype and genetic lineage evolves within a certain area, periodically causing regional epizootics. However, over the past 30 years, two FMD panzootics have occurred, invloving several continents. The first panzootic occurred in the late 1990s – early 2000s and was caused by O/ME-SA/PanAsia FMDV, and the second, caused by O/ME-SA/Ind-2001 virus, began in 2013 and continues to the present. The emergence of FMD panzootics is probably a consequence of the economic globalization. FMD is not enzootic in Russia, but sporadic outbreaks of this disease are periodically reported. Molecular epidemiological studies have shown that these outbreaks are caused by the infection introduction from neighboring Asian countries, mainly from China. The FMD virus, which has come to the Russian Federation from other countries, is characterized by great genetic diversity and belongs to three serotypes, five topotypes and eight genetic lineages: O/Cathay, O/ME-SA/PanAsia, O/SEA/Mya-98, O/ME-SA/Ind-2001, O/ME-SA/unnamed, A/Asia/Iran-05, A/Asia/Sea-97, Asia1/V. The results of molecular epidemiological studies are taken into account when vaccine strains are to be selected for preventive vaccination of livestock in FMD high-risk areas. The review is based on the analysis of 68 literature sources.

Livestock Vaccines: Principles, Types, and Important Factors to Consider

This publication presents information on the basic mechanisms and types of livestock vaccines available, as well as a few best practices for vaccine management. This information can help improve your herd health and success in your next herd vaccination. Written by Juan M. Campos Krauer and João H. J. Bittar, and published by the Veterinary Medicine—Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, UF/IFAS Extension, January 2024.

Spatial epidemiology of human anthrax in Son La province, Vietnam, 2003-2022.

Anthrax is reported with frequency but poorly understood in Southeast Asian countries including Vietnam. In Vietnam, anthrax surveillance is national. However, case detection, prevention, and control are implemented locally at the provincial level. Here, we describe the epidemiological characteristics, identify spatial clusters of human anthrax, and compare the variation in livestock anthrax vaccine coverage to disease incidence in humans and livestock using historical data in Son La province, Vietnam (2003-2020). Most human cases occurred between April and September. Most of the patients were male, aged 15-54 years old. The human cases were mainly reported by public district hospitals. There was a delay between disease onset and hospitalization of ~5 days. We identified spatial clusters of high-high incidence communes in the northern communes of the province using the local Moran's I statistic. The vaccine coverage sharply decreased across the study period. The province reported sporadic human anthrax outbreaks, while animal cases were only reported in 2005 and 2022. These results suggest underreporting for human and livestock anthrax in the province. Intersectoral information sharing is needed to aid livestock vaccination planning, which currently relies on reported livestock cases. The spatial clusters identify areas for targeted surveillance and livestock vaccination, while the seasonal case data suggest prioritizing vaccination campaigns for February or early March ahead of the April peak. A regional approach for studying the role of livestock trading between Son La and neighbouring provinces in anthrax occurrence is recommended.

Equine Rotavirus A under the One Health Lens: Potential Impacts on Public Health.

Group A rotaviruses are a well-known cause of viral gastroenteritis in infants and children, as well as in many mammalian species and birds, affecting them at a young age. This group of viruses has a double-stranded, segmented RNA genome with high genetic diversity linked to point mutations, recombination, and, importantly, reassortment. While initial molecular investigations undertaken in the 1900s suggested host range restriction among group A rotaviruses based on the fact that different gene segments were distributed among different animal species, recent molecular surveillance and genome constellation genotyping studies conducted by the Rotavirus Classification Working Group (RCWG) have shown that animal rotaviruses serve as a source of diversification of human rotavirus A, highlighting their zoonotic potential. Rotaviruses occurring in various animal species have been linked with contributing genetic material to human rotaviruses, including horses, with the most recent identification of equine-like G3 rotavirus A infecting children. The goal of this article is to review relevant information related to rotavirus structure/genomic organization, epidemiology (with a focus on human and equine rotavirus A), evolution, inter-species transmission, and the potential zoonotic role of equine and other animal rotaviruses. Diagnostics, surveillance and the current status of human and livestock vaccines against RVA are also reviewed.

Defining correlates of protection for mammalian livestock vaccines against high-priority viral diseases.

Enhancing livestock biosecurity is critical to safeguard the livelihoods of farmers, global and local economies, and food security. Vaccination is fundamental to the control and prevention of exotic and endemic high-priority infectious livestock diseases. Successful implementation of vaccination in a biosecurity plan is underpinned by a strong understanding of correlates of protection-those elements of the immune response that can reliably predict the level of protection from viral challenge. While correlates of protection have been successfully characterized for many human viral vaccines, for many high-priority livestock viral diseases, including African swine fever and foot and mouth disease, they remain largely uncharacterized. Current literature provides insights into potential correlates of protection that should be assessed during vaccine development for these high-priority mammalian livestock viral diseases. Establishment of correlates of protection for biosecurity purposes enables immune surveillance, rationale for vaccine development, and successful implementation of livestock vaccines as part of a biosecurity strategy.

An overview of anthrax: a neglected zoonosis of the tropical region

Anthrax is a neglected bacterial zoonosis that can be highly contagious and potentially lethal. The disease, which mainly affects herbivorous ungulate animals, is caused by Bacillus anthracis, a rod-shaped, gram-positive bacterium. The pathogenicity depends on the production of toxins by Bacillus anthracis and the sensitivity of the host. The infection is transmitted to humans when they come in to contact with infected animals or their products. It is an important occupational risk to the abattoir workers. Clinical manifestations of disease in humans include different forms, including cutaneous, pulmonary and intestinal. The disease is widespread in African and Asian countries with frequent reports of cases. Lack of appropriate and effective control programs in these countries has led to increase in the number of human cases. Bacillus anthracis spores are extremely resistant to environmental conditions, and can persist for several decades in nature and, thus making the control or eradication of the disease difficult. Disease control involves managing contaminated animal products, avoiding contact with infected animals, livestock vaccination in endemic regions and routine surveillance of animals. The most effective and dependable way to control zoonotic diseases like anthrax is through collaborative monitoring programs including the "One Health" approach.

Risk analysis of the spread of cattle viral diarrhea in Kazakhstan

Bovine viral diarrhea (BVD) is the most common infectious disease of cattle and is registered in many countries of the world. The disease causes significant economic damage to livestock, primarily due to a decrease in the reproductive capacity of infected animals. Infection of cattle during pregnancy results in transmission of the infection to the fetus, which can lead to embryonic death or the birth of persistently infected (PI) calves. PI-animals excrete BVDV in their feces and secretions throughout their lives, which is why they are the main pathway of transmission of the virus. Moreover, acute BVDV infection leads to transient viremia and immunosuppression, resulting in an increase in secondary infections. In recent years, outbreaks of BVD cattle have been reported in several regions of Russia and China bordering Kazakhstan, indicating a high risk of introducing the infection into the country. Although Kazakhstan is officially considered free from BVD cattle, there is ample evidence that this infection is present in many regions of the country. However, the lack of a clear understanding of the epizootic situation in the country in terms of BVD cattle does not allow the full use of effective control measures, such as total vaccination of livestock in regions at risk of infection. This article provides data on the epizootic situation in Kazakhstan on BVD cattle, as well as an epidemiological analysis of the risks of the spread of BVD cattle in the country.

Suitability of anthrax (Bacillus anthracis) in the Black Sea basin through the scope of distribution modelling.

The Black Sea basin has a strategic geographic location bridging Asia and Europe and depends on traditional livestock practices for their local economies. Anthrax, a zoonotic bacterial disease caused by Bacillus anthracis, poses a significant global threat impacting public health, food security, pastoralist communities, and national economies. The disease is endemic or sporadic in the Black Sea basin, however, the study of its distribution has seldom been addressed, despite its burden and the presence of historical B. anthracis burial sites in the region. The viability of B. anthracis in a particular region is going to be influenced by multiple environmental factors, such as soil composition, climate, vegetation, and host abundance. For characterizing the potential distribution of B. anthracis in the Black Sea basin and assessing the potential for anthrax outbreaks, we applied an ecological niche modelling framework using the Maxent algorithm. This machine-learning algorithm models species distributions based on presence data and background information from a specified calibration region. We analyzed multiple variable combinations and proposed a novel approach for interpreting in-risk anthrax areas. Our findings underscored the importance of host abundance to the anthrax dynamics in the region. We identified anthrax-suitable areas spanning central and eastern Türkiye, Armenia, southern Georgia, southern Russia, Bulgaria, southern and eastern Romania, Hungary, Moldova, and southern Ukraine, which align with findings from previous global and regional studies on the potential suitability of anthrax. The insights gained from our research may help to develop targeted interventions, such as awareness and educational campaigns about anthrax, supervision of anthrax-infected carcasses disposal, and the promotion of livestock vaccination in high-risk areas. Additionally, these results can inform policies to mitigate the spread of anthrax in pastoralist communities in the Black Sea basin and foster collaboration between veterinary and public health entities on anthrax control.

Introduction to Livestock Vaccines and Immunity

Introduction to Livestock Vaccines and Immunity