Use Of Language Tests Research Articles

Exploring potential use of language testing to foster environmental education

Environmental education is commonly integrated into classroom materials of many subjects to support SDGs. The topic on environment is potentially used in language testing. This will allow washback effect of the learning of the environmental issues which, hence, increase the test takers awareness. The present study aims to identify the potential benefits of integrating environmental issues into language testing. According to the study, integration of the topics should be done with caution to avoid construct-irrelevant variance. Unfamiliar topics frequently cause some issues in language testing, discouraging the test takers to rely on their background knowledge rather than their mere language competence. Thus, selection of topics should be done by also considering the objectives of the environmental education itself.

Language test activism

During the past decades, migration policies in Western societies have grown stricter by the day. As part of this retrenchment, migrants are required to pass language tests to gain access to human and democratic rights such as residency, family reunification, and citizenship, as well as to enter the labour market or higher education. The use of language tests to control migration and integration is not value neutral. The question discussed in this paper is whether those who develop language tests should strive to remain neutral, or, on the contrary, whether they have a moral and professional responsibility to take action when their tests are misused. In this paper, a case is made for the latter: arguing along the lines of critical language testing, we encourage professional language testers to take on a more active role in order to prevent harmful consequences of their tests. The paper introduces the concept language test activism (LTA) to underscore the importance of scholars taking a more active role for social justice, following the pathway of proponents of intellectual activism in related fields like sociology and linguistics. We argue that language testers have a special responsibility for justice and consequences, as these are integrated in the very concept of validity upon which modern language testing is based. A model of language test activism is presented and illustrated by real-life examples of language test activism in Norway and Italy showing that language test activism may need to take on different forms to be successful, depending on the context in which it takes place.

Language Test Misuse

ABSTRACT During the past two decades, an increasing number of European countries have introduced language requirements for residency, citizenship, and sometimes even for entry to the country and family reunification. As a result, democratic rights as well as basic human rights have come to depend upon an individual’s ability to obtain a certain score on a language test and the consequences of failing may be detrimental. In the field of language testing, this use of language tests is often referred to as test misuse, yet the term lacks a precise definition in the literature. In this paper we propose a definition of test misuse in relation to language tests for migration purposes and focus particular attention on low-literate adult migrants for whom the requirements pose a considerable barrier. The main purpose of this paper is to address the question why language tests are being misused in migration policies, exploring linguistic, political as well as test theoretical explanations. We suggest that a more central role of test misuse in validity theory is essential in order to remedy its lack of research focus in our field.

The challenges of providing expert advice in policy contexts

Language testers can have various roles in relation to the use of language tests and policy. One such role may be to provide expert advice in policy formation or policy review contexts. Such instances are often not documented systematically, as advice may be provided in informal or closed meetings, or confidential documents, which are not available to the public. The challenges associated with providing such advice are also rarely recorded. In this paper, I describe three instances in which the Language Testing Research Centre (LTRC) at the University of Melbourne was invited to provide external policy advice. I specifically reflect on what prompted the invitations, what advice we were asked to provide, the complexity of providing advice in each instance, and whether the advice was taken up by the policy makers. The paper reflects on some of the common threads and concludes with implications for training new language testers.

Students’ Emotive Reaction and Confidence in Doing Language Tests: A Case of Test Takers in EFL Learning in Indonesia

It has long been argued that the tests administered to students influence the students' learning motivation. The study aims at investigating the students' emotive reactions and confidence in doing English language tests and its implications for EFL learning. Forty-two students of the Department of English Education, University of Tadulako, Palu, Indonesia participated in the research. The students were programming Speaking Class in the Academic Year 2016/2017. Questionnaire items and focused group discussions were employed to produce the data needed. From the data analysis, it reveals that the use of language tests motivates the students in learning English despite the stressful situations they experience while they are sitting on the tests. Interestingly, the research findings show that the students are delightful in doing the tests. The students are most confident in speaking tests, but they are least confident in writing tests. Reading tests are in second place in terms of the student confidence in doing tests and listening tests are in the third place. How language testing motivates EFL learners is discussed.

Language tests, linguistic gatekeeping and global mobility

ABSTRACTLanguage tests are increasingly being used as gatekeeping tools in a globalised world. This article examines the processes of linguistic gatekeeping by the use of language tests in the context of migration. We draw on half a dozen cases of test-takers of the International English Language Testing System (IELTS) test who applied for entry into Australia on student, work or residency visa. We argue that while test-using migration programmes in countries such as Australia may give the impression that language tests are required for diagnosis of applicants’ ‘linguistic health’ and certification of ‘linguistic immunity’, official demands of language test scores may also be only distantly related to their actual language ability. From test-takers’ perspectives, the processes of linguistic gatekeeping can be linked to profit-making, suggesting how neoliberalism relates to immigration. In a neoliberal policy context, migration desires can be capitalised by gatekeeping authorities for their education and labour markets; these authorities may also capitalise on gatekeeping mechanisms such as language tests and test scores as commodified policy artefacts. Policy concerns for migrants’ linguistic health may, then, be related to financial health of testing industries. The article contributes to our understanding of the relationships between language policy and globalisation by illustrating the linguistic management of global mobility in transnational migration.

The weaponisation of language: English proficiency, citizenship and the politics of belonging in Australia

Calls for greater protection of national boundaries – both physical and ideological – and the politicising of immigration and citizenship are increasingly characteristic of the global geo-political landscape. Several signatory countries to the UNHCR refugee convention have sought to legislate higher levels of language proficiency for citizenship eligibility. Most recently, this has been attempted in Australia, reigniting controversy about the use of language testing to assess a potential citizen’s ‘worthiness’. In this paper, we identify contested conceptions of belonging and citizenship, manifested in mediatised debates around language proficiency and citizenship which emerged following the announcement of proposed changes to Australian citizenship rules. We use Graff’s (1981) concept of the ‘Literacy Myth’ to analyze associations between language proficiency and ‘morality’ evident in Australian media articles, to explore the underpinning discourses of these proposals, and to probe the relationship between citizenship, belonging and language. We argue that these myths work discursively to frame language proficiency as a proxy measure of the morality of prospective citizens and their willingness to ‘integrate’ or ‘assimilate’ into resettlement contexts. Relatedly, these myths can be deployed to justify the denial of the possibility of belonging to those who do not possess the linguistic capital privileged by policy and media elites.

Language tests and neoliberalism in “global human resource” development: A case of Japanese Universities

Abstract This study looks into the increasing emphasis on the use of language tests for global workplace preparation in Japan. It presents particular usages of English language tests in higher education curricula designed to foster “Global Human Resources” (GHRs), a special global workforce with high levels of English proficiency deemed necessary by the Japanese government. Focusing on a government-initiated five-year funding program, “The Project for Promotion of Global Human Resources”, government documents and the project planning sheets of 11 universities are analyzed to trace how language tests act as a form of governmentality (Foucault. 2007 [1977]. Security, territory, population: Lectures at the Collège de France, 1977–1978 (Trans. by Graham Burchell). New York: Palgrave Macmillan) to maximize the number of GHRs. I describe how language tests are used to portray a reality about the lack of English proficiency among Japanese youth, how they work as a powerful accountability measure for universities, and how these tests are incorporated into language education curricula with the goal of increasing students’ language capital. Three functions of language tests are then identified in the universities’ proposed curricula: motivating, categorizing, and prioritizing through testing. These governing techniques represent how language tests can work to promote neoliberal forms of international education that instrumentalize language learning, stimulate inequitable competition, and (un)reward certain global subjectivities.

Using EIKEN, TOEFL, and TOEIC to Award EFL Course Credits in Japanese Universities

ABSTRACTDespite the wide use of language tests as a basis for awarding English language course credits at Japanese universities, little has been published about how universities set policies on awarding credits according to external test scores. To narrow this gap, the characteristics of such policies were investigated in relation to the EIKEN Test in Practical English Proficiency (EIKEN), the Test of English as a Foreign LanguageTM (TOEFL®), and the Test of English for International CommunicationTM (TOEIC®). Analyses of 18 national and 28 private universities showed that each university had a median of 58.50 EFL courses for which credits were offered on the basis of external test scores. Moreover, approximately one-third of cases of credit awarding showed a discrepancy between skills targeted in courses and those measured on the tests used in credit-awarding policies, suggesting that credit awarding based on these proficiency measures seems overall adequate. However, credit-awarding policies were problematic for four-skill (62.44% and 63.37% for national and private universities, respectively) and listening-speaking courses (61.26% and 65.29%). Academic staff responses to the questionnaire revealed some possible reasons EFL course credits could be offered despite gaps between skills targeted in courses and those measured on tests. Implications are provided for the improvement of credit-awarding policies.

Values and Attitudes of Nordic Language Teachers Towards Second Language Education

Summary Issues in minority education in relation to citizenship have received more attention lately, because of new requirements for language testing in several countries (Bevelander, Fernandez & Hellström, 2011, p. 101). The acquisition of citizenship is more decisive for immigrant participation in society than the duration of stay in the country (Bevelander, Fernandez & Hellström, 2011). The second language is crucial for active citizenship and integration in this perspective. Most countries in the EU (except Ireland and Sweden) have language requirements for citizenship and the use of language testing becomes increasingly common among the countries that receive migrants. The rapid development highlights the need for new international studies on the relationship between citizenship and conditions for second language learning. The goal of the recent study is to compare premises, perspectives and scales of values of Danish, Norwegian and Swedish language educators, related to the requirements for immigrant citizenship. Previous studies (Björklund & Liubiniené, 2004) indicate that there are major differences in value systems even between the neighbouring countries. To reach the objective of the present study, interviews were conducted with language educators in Denmark, Norway and Sweden. The results have revealed two opposing patterns. The values of Swedish informants show a wide-ranging variation, while the Danish and Norwegian data on values are consistently similar. The results raise further questions about the effects caused by differences in values among language educators when comparing the countries and call for a further verification of the data in a more extended study, including Lithuania and other Baltic states.

‘A fair go for all?’ Australia’s language-in-migration policy

ABSTRACTAs the power of tests lies in their uses, language tests that are used to assess immigration eligibility exercise enormous power. Critical Language Testing calls for exposing the power of tests by examining the intentions of introducing tests and their effects on individuals and society, especially from the perspective of test-takers. This case study investigates the rationale for and impact of a particular language-in-migration policy in Australia, drawing on the experiences and perceptions of two skilled migration applicants. One of them was successful and the other unsuccessful, essentially on the ground of their language test results. Insights from the study challenge prevalent discourses about language tests and social integration, employability, economic efficiency, and national security. The article makes some policy recommendations for making the use of language tests more beneficial for immigrants and immigrant-receiving societies in a globalised world that has witnessed unprecedented flows of immigrants.

An investigation of the use of TOEFL® Junior™ Standard scores for ESL placement decisions in secondary education

A common use of language tests is to support decisions about examinees such as placement into appropriate classes. Research on placement testing has focused on English for Academic Purposes (EAP) in higher education contexts. However, there is little research exploring the use of language tests to place students in English as a Second Language (ESL) support classes in secondary education. The present study examined the relationship between secondary school students’ language test scores from a standardized English-language test and the placement of these students into ESL classes by their language teachers. Ninety-two ESL students in two English-medium schools took TOEFL® Junior™ Standard. For the same students, data collection also included teachers’ judgments regarding the ESL classes the students should attend. Strong correlations between test scores and the teacher-assigned ESL levels were found. Moreover, the results from the logistic regression analysis indicated a great degree of overlap between the teacher-assigned ESL levels and the levels predicted from the TOEFL Junior Standard scores. The findings of this study provide some preliminary evidence to support the use of TOEFL Junior Standard as an initial screening tool for ESL placement. The limitations and implications of these findings for ESL placement decisions in secondary education are also discussed.

Use of Language Tests when Identifying Specific Language Impairment in Primary Health Care

Objective: To evaluate the ability of language tests to identify children with specific language impairment (SLI) in primary health care. All the language tests presently in clinical use in Finland were applied. Method: All the children with SLI living in one city in Finland constituted the cohort. Test scores were collected from 83 subjects drawn from a birth cohort of 4,553 children. Finally 31 case-control pairs were studied. All SLI diagnoses were set in secondary health care. Test scores of 14 language tests were examined that, together with subtests, included 39 different tasks. Results: Out of 39 performed tests, the difference in test scores between children with SLI and their matched controls was statistically significant in 26 tests. A group of six tests had good sensitivity and moderate specificity for SLI diagnosis and they correctly classified children with SLI to either F80.1 or F80.2 diagnosis category. Conclusion: The results suggest that most of the language tests in Finnish identify children with SLI and, furthermore, that these tests identify language deficits that are consistent with those found in other studies. More studies with larger age-matched populations are needed.

Fairness Versus Justice in Language Testing: The Place of English Literacy in the Australian Citizenship Test

This article proposes a distinction between fairness and justice in relation to language tests. Basing its discussion on the validity theory of Samuel Messick, it discusses the way in which these terms have been used in the existing literature, and their relationship to the concept of validity. Fairness, broadly speaking, refers to the technical quality of the test; justice encompasses the values implicit in test constructs, and the social uses to which language tests may be put. It illustrates the potential usefulness of the distinction by discussing the growing international practice of the use of language tests within citizenship procedures, and considers in detail the introduction of a formal citizenship test in Australia by a conservative government in the context of growing public anxiety about security, and about cultural diversity within the Australian population.

The use of language tests in the service of policy: issues of validity

Résumé On examine dans cet article le rôle des tests de langue en tant qu’instruments politiques dans la société contemporaine, et les questions de validité qui en découlent. Sont abordées en contraste les approches uniquement centrées sur l’impartialité des tests dans une optique de validité plus large qui soulève des questions d’équité dans l’utilisation des tests. Le propos est illustré en référence au Cadre Européen Commun de Référence pour les Langues, et aux tests utilisés dans les procédures d’accréditation à un poste de travail, tels les tests de langue pour les pilotes et les contrôleurs aériens et pour les professionnels de santé.

The case for bilingual language tests: a study of test adaptation and analysis

The justification for the use of language tests in education in multilingual and multicultural societies needs to include both the aims of bilingual education, and evidence that the international standards for tests that are available in two or more languages are being met. In multilingual and multicultural societies, language tests, for example, can play an important role in the implementation and monitoring of additive bilingual education, or developmental maintenance bilingual programmes (MBE). MBE is contrasted with transitional bilingual education (TBE). One such programme of MBE for isiXhosa-speaking children in the rural areas of South Africa is currently being implemented. A test of cognitive academic language proficiency, the Woodcock Muñoz Language Survey, was selected to research the language outcomes of the project. This test is used widely in the USA for the evaluation of bilingual programmes, and is available in Spanish and English. After receiving permission for the test to be adapted into isiXhosa, a team of translators, educators, linguists and a psychometrist started the process of adapting the test into isiXhosa. In the language of the International Test Commission's Guidelines for Adaptating Educational and Psychological Tests (ITC, 2000), the challenge is to ensure the linguistic equivalence of the two versions of the tests, and to provide evidence of the statistical equivalence of the two versions of the test. The English version was also adapted for the South African context. This study will report on the processes that were followed during the workshops to translate and adapt the test, a Differential Item Functioning (DIF) analysis of the items of the two versions of the test, some of the steps that were taken to address problems in the initial adaptation of the test into isiXhosa, and the results of an evaluation of the construct equivalence of the two versions.

Issues and trends in language testing and assessment in Thailand

This paper aims to present an overview of language testing in Thailand. Language testing practices in the past are also reviewed. Attention is paid to the washback effects of language tests, the use of language tests in school admissions, questions of test validity, the emergence of standardized tests, the influence of societal values on testing practices, the use of computers and technology in language testing, and the success or failure of policy implementation. Also reviewed are the following new trends of language testing and assessment in Thailand: human resources development and professional certification, the integration of IT and English teaching and testing, quality assurance and English assessment, learner autonomy and self-assessment, and advanced technology and innovations in language assessment.

Grammar Error Strike Hard: Language Proficiency Testing of Hong Kong Teachers and the Four "Noes"

This article first reviews important issues of language, power, and testing. It then examines in critical fashion a particular instance of the use of language testing by the Hong Kong government, namely, the Language Proficiency Assessment for Teachers (LPAT). Treating the LPAT developments as a form of narrative rather than debate, it presents analysis through a context-events-problem-solution-evaluation discourse sequence that perpetuates nonresolution. This procedure permits ongoing reference to and evaluation of the political, educational, and language setting, the schizophrenic position of English, government language policy documentation, the test itself, and media coverage of the results. It indicates the detrimental effects of the LPAT for test-takers, for learning, and for the community at large, advancing and justifying some alternatives and explaining why such lines of resistance lie beyond the purview of most teacher victims. It concludes that the LPAT examination should be heeded both as an early sign of increasingly illiberal political tendencies and as a warning example of bad educational practice. Key words: Hong Kong, language and power, discourse of crisis, falling standards, teacher language proficiency; benchmarking, teacher education

Evaluating the Effectiveness of Heritage Language Education: What Role for Testing?

This paper considers the role of tests in evaluating the effectiveness of a government-funded initiative to teach heritage languages in selected Australian schools. External evaluations were commissioned by the central educational authority and included a pre- and post-test requirement, although the nature and purpose of the tests was not specified. Drawing on illustrative data from four heritage language (HL) programmes (for learners of Chinese, Vietnamese and Arabic), the paper discusses the dilemmas faced by the evaluators in implementing the testing programme and in interpreting the test results. While the experience of testing in these schools suggests the need for extreme caution in using score gains as the sole source of evidence for determining programme effectiveness, it is argued that the process of devising and implementing such tests is valuable in that it forces the schools concerned to make explicit programme goals and the kinds of data that they would accept as evidence that these goals are being achieved. In addition, while the tests used are inadequate measures of genuine learning, they provide insights into the workings of each programme that would not otherwise have been available. The paper concludes with a number of recommendations for more effective use of language tests in HL education contexts.

On the Relationship between Impulsivity / Reflectivity Cognitive Style and Performance on TMU English Exam

Abstract Performance on language tests varies as a function of various factors. These factors, according to Bachman (1990) include: communicative language ability, test method facets, personal attributes that are not related to the ability we want to measure, and random factors which are unpredictable and temporary. Since the purpose of language tests is to measure language ability, a fundamental concern in the development and use of language tests is to identify potential sources of error and test bias in a given measure of language ability and to minimize the effects of these factors, hence to maximize the reliability and the validity of the tests. This study with 1984 male and female PhD candidates with an age range of 21-51 who took the Tarbiat Modarres University (TMU) TOEFL-like English Examination as a prerequisite for their admission for PhD programs attempted to identify one of the potential sources of test bias called impulsivity / reflectivity (Imp/Ref) cognitive style. The purpose of the present study was two fold: On the one hand, the present research attempted to investigate the relationships and interaction between impulsivity/reflectivity, age, sex and performance on TMU English Exam. This, on the other hand, required restandardization of Persian Impulsiveness Questionnaire in Iran. To achieve this purpose of the study, having gone through the restandardization procedures, the data obtained from 1822 subjects regarding impulsivity/reflectivity were factor-analyzed through Principal Axis Factoring (PAF) and Maximum Likelihood (ML) in order to check the construct validity of the test. To achieve the main objective of the research, the subjects were classified into three groups of high, medium and low impulsives to see if this cognitive style has any relationship with Ph.D. candidates’ performance on TMU English Exam. Moreover, the role of gender and age in the subjects’ performance and the interaction effect of impulsivity, age and sex on their performance were taken into consideration. The results revealed that both impulsivity and gender are significant factors in the subjects’ performance. The overall main effect of age and the interaction effect were found to be non significant.