Use Of Forced Labor Research Articles

Legislative guarantees of the prohibition and risks of involvement of Ukrainians in forced labour

The article analyses the legislative guarantees of the prohibition of forced labour, modern risks of occurrence and involvement of Ukrainians in martial law. International and national norms prohibiting the use of forced labour are revealed. Attention is focused on the fact that Ukraine is one of the states whose citizens suffer from this phenomenon the most in Europe. Researching the concept of "forced labour”, the authors note that it is absent in Ukrainian legislation, therefore, for a full understanding of this term, they use international practice. The article describes the main forms and manifestations of forced labour. The conditions of employment are defined, which are signs of danger for the employee and which should be paid attention to in the process of employment relations in order not to become a victim of labour exploitation. Political and socioeconomic factors that influence the increase in the number of cases of forced labour are analysed. In particular, political instability, a difficult economic situation, the inability of the state to guarantee a decent living standard, unemployment, labour migration, especially outside the state, the low level of legal culture of citizens, which is the reason for the poor awareness of Ukrainians with their rights and the principles of the prohibition of forced labour. The authors draw attention to the fact that under the conditions of martial law in Ukraine, the number of socially vulnerable sections of the population that suffered from military aggression and may be at risk of being involved in forced labour has increased. Statistics of criminal proceedings related to human trafficking for 2022­2023 are presented, as a significant part of the victims of this offense were subjected to forced labour. It is emphasized that in most countries of the world the phenomenon of imposing forced labour by the state has disappeared and such an activity is recognized as a criminal offense.

Labor contingent of the Southern Kuzbass Corrective Labor Camp of the USSR Ministry of Internal Affairs of the USSR in 1947-1953: number, employment, composition of the working fund.

The article is devoted to the study of the labor contingent in the South Kuzbass Corrective Labor Camp of the USSR Ministry of Internal Affairs in the period from 1947 to 1953. The purpose of the publication is to identify the composition and number of workers involved in the production sector of labor camps and their employment. The chronological framework of the study covers the period from the formation of the camp until the beginning of a radical restructuring of the Soviet Gulag system. When studying this issue, the author used general scientific and special historical methods (methods of quantitative analysis and statistical processing of materials). The novelty of the work lies in the use of unpublished archival documents and addressing local history issues that have not received widespread scientific coverage. Based on archival materials from the current archive of the Main Directorate of the Federal Penitentiary Service for the Kemerovo Region, the dynamics of changes in the number of both forced labor camp prisoners and civilian workers, as well as the degree of their employment, are examined. A comparative analysis of the quantitative composition of the working fund of the South Kuzbass Corrective Labor Camp of the USSR Ministry of Internal Affairs predecessor, the Yuzhkuzbassles trust, showed that the transition to the use of forced labor in the logging industry in the south of the Kemerovo region made it possible to solve the problem of labor shortage. Particular attention is paid to the issues of employing the camp contingent in the production sector of the Corrective Labor Camp. The reasons why labor functions were not always performed by the prison population were identified, and statistics for each of them were also provided. Particular attention is paid to the processes of transformation of the labor fund in 1953.

The Second Wave of the Fisheries Subsidies Negotiations: Overcapacity, Overfishing, and Other Disciplines

The Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies (AFS) was concluded by the Ministerial Conference of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in June 2022. It was negotiated following the mandate contained in the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 14.6 adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 2015. In the AFS, WTO Members were able to agree on subsidy prohibitions relating to illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing, overfished stocks and unregulated waters. However, the AFS fails to address part of the SDG 14.6 mandate concerning subsidies contributing to overcapacity and overfishing. For this reason, WTO Members have, shortly after the conclusion of the AFS, engaged in a second wave of negotiations to address the missing elements in SDG 14.6, as well as other provisions left out of the AFS. At the time of writing, the WTO Negotiating Group on Rules has produced a draft text containing the proposals of Members on overcapacity and overfishing, including a sustainability carve-out and special and differential treatment for developing countries. In addition, this text includes a subsidy prohibition with respect to subsidies contingent upon or tied to fishing and fishing related activities in waters outside the subsidizing Member’s jurisdiction and a notification obligation concerning the use of forced labour. The challenge is, therefore, to produce a text that is agreeable to both the representatives of Members sitting at the WTO Ministerial Conference and the stakeholders of each WTO Member who will decide, domestically, whether to ratify the agreement. fisheries subsidies, IUU fishing, overfished stocks, overcapacity, overfishing, forced labour, waters outside the jurisdiction

Economic aspects of the effectiveness of forced labor in the Soviet camp system in the first half of the 1950s. (based on the Southern Kuzbass Corrective Labor Camp of the USSR Ministry of Internal Affairs of the USSR materials).

Using the example of the Corrective Labor Camp of the USSR Ministry of Internal Affairs of the USSR, some economic aspects of the effectiveness of forced labor in the Soviet camp system in the first half of the 50s are considered. The twentieth century particular attention is paid to the issue of expenses and income of the forced labor camp. Based on archival materials from the current archive of the Main Directorate of the Federal Penitentiary Service for the Kemerovo Region, a list of expenses is given, as well as the amount of money spent by the state on the maintenance of the prison population and the forced labor camp as a whole. Data on the costs required to maintain the camp economy are correlated with the amount of money for which the contingent produced marketable products annually. Information is provided on the amount of financial assistance received by the forced labor camp from the state budget and from the departmental unit under the jurisdiction of which it was located. The novelty of the research lies in the appeal to unpublished archival documents of the current archive of the Main Directorate of the Federal Penitentiary Service for the Kemerovo region and in local history topics that have not received widespread scientific coverage. The author comes to the conclusion that the income received from the labor activities of the prison population not only did not compensate for the costs of servicing the activities of the correctional labor camp, but also significantly exceeded them. Analysis of documentary material clearly showed that the use of forced labor was not cheap for the state, much less free. The state spent significant sums to organize camp production and maintain the prison population. The camp existed thanks to annually received government grants and subsidies.

Results and Lessons of GULAG System Implementation in Historical Perspective

oday, in conditions of limited supply in the labor market both at the regional level and from the rostrum of the State Duma proposals are being made on the use of forced labor in the national economy. In this regard, it is important to return to the study of the historical experience of our country. The proposed work provides a comprehensive review of the results of studying the consequences of the use of forced labor within the framework of the economic system of the Gulag in modern scientific literature. The author argues that short-term results achieved through the use of forced labor are fraught with protracted negative consequences for generations, difficult to overcome and hindering further sustainable development.

ФОРМИРОВАНИЕ ИСТОЧНИКОВ РЕЗЕРВНОЙ РАБОЧЕЙ СИЛЫ В РОССИИ ИЗ ЧИСЛА ОСУЖДЕННЫХ ЛИЦ

The purpose of the study is to determine the real size of the reserve of potential labor force that can be involved in the country's economy from among convicted; to consider the socio–demographic composition of convicts, periods of punishment in order to analyze motivation to work and to form stable labor relations during the period of serving a sentence and during social adaptation; to identify the existing economic, legislative and organizational restrictions for the widespread use of forced labor, as well as incentives for the involvement of convicted persons in socially useful work. The task is to determine the conditions for more effective use of the potential reserve labor force among convicted persons to partially compensate for the reduction of the labor force in the economy of the Russian Federation under the influence of demographic and migration factors. In the course of the study, systematic and comparative approaches, structural analysis, and methods of statistical information processing were used. The analysis of scientific literature, statistical data of the Federal Penitentiary Service of Russia (FSIN), the Judicial Department of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation, State Statistics (Rosstat), and materials of the Ministry of Justice of the Russian Federation was carried out. One of the practical results of the study is the new approaches developed by the authors in the organization of the use of the labor of convicted persons in the framework of forced labor aimed at creating conditions for prolonged employment and a continuous system of social adaptation of convicts after serving sentences. Conclusions are drawn about the presence of barriers in the current system of organization of forced labor to increase the number of convicted persons who can be effectively involved in socially useful labor.

ПРИНУДИТЕЛЬНЫЙ ТРУД УЗНИКОВ ФИНСКИХ КОНЦЕНТРАЦИОННЫХ ЛАГЕРЕЙ

The purpose of the article is to study the organization organization by the Eastern Karelia Military Administration (EKMA) of forced labor of concentration camp prisoners in the occupied territory of Karelia in 19411944. Based on an analysis of available sources, such as protocols of interrogations of concentration camp prisoners, Soviet intelligence reports and reports of the Eastern Karelia Military Administration, various areas of the use of forced labor for the most intensive development of the resources of the occupied territory of the KFSSR were considered. The relevance of the topic is caused by the creation of an interdepartmental working group at the Prosecutor’s Office of the Republic of Karelia to form an evidence base in order to recognize the policy of Finland in the occupied territory of Karelia in 1941–1944 genocide against the non-Finno-Ugric population. It implies the necessity to consider the attitude of the Eastern Karelia Military Administration towards prisoners of concentration camps. The forced labor is one of the most common subjects in the memories of prisoners. In memoirs and historiography, the terror policies of the Finnish authorities and slave labor are divided into two separate topics. In this article, the author argues that the policy of terror served as the sole motivating factor for increasing the efficiency of prisoners in the logging industry, both in relation to non-combatants and prisoners of war alike.

The Dalstroy’s Crisis and the Problems of the Gold Mining in the North-East of the USSR in 1954–1957

The article analyzes the main factors in the development of the Dalstroy gold mining after the creation of the Magadan Region in December 1953. Since the late 1940s there were many factors of the crisis in the gold mining of Dalstroy, including a decrease in the availability of alluvial gold reserves, a decrease in the average gold content in the sands, a shortage of qualified personnel, problems in the organization of forced labor, as well as decisions that determined the concentration of exploration work on gold deposits within the Kolyma gold-bearing zone and the reorientation mainly for exploration and mining of tin. One of the main reasons for the Dalstroy gold mining crisis was the transformation of the entire economic system of the organization to free labor. This process was accompanied by the problems of organizing free and forced labor, high staff turnover, the need to select qualified personnel to service bulldozers, excavators and flushing devices, to accommodate, improve and create conditions for civilian workers, including former convicts and special settlers, as well as to provide work with prisoners on new terms. The number of workers in the gold mining industry for 1953–1957 decreased by more than 2.5 times. The authorities of the region, while maintaining the system of benefits and relying on well-established schemes and administrative resources, tried to replace the staff. The use of forced labor of prisoners versus the use of “civilian” workers in the gold mining of the North-East in the 1950s was no longer due to economic calculation in comparison with the period of the 1930s — the first half of the 1940s. In the 1950s, along with a decrease in the volume of manual work, the growth of mechanization and automation, the work of convicts became more and more costly and less efficient.

Racial Capitalism and the Contemporary International Law on Slavery: (Re)membering Hacienda Brasil Verde

ABSTRACT Refusal of abject commodification undergirds contemporary international law definitions of slavery and their growing linkage to international economic agreements through injunctions against the use of forced labor. Yet there are screaming silences in ongoing attempts to grapple with the prevalence and significance of contemporary slavery in the global economy. This contribution to the special issue on racial capitalism in international economic law calls for a reckoning with the past in the international law on contemporary slavery. By foregrounding resistances to erasure, and squarely addressing the significance of race to the perpetuation of slavery, this article seeks to harness their promise for a reconstruction of a contemporary law of slavery that understands racialization as offering an essential social justice challenge to the decommodification of labor.

Risk, Reporting and Responsibility: Modern Slavery, Colonial Power and Fashion’s Transparency Industry

This article investigates the role of the Australian Modern Slavery Act 2018 as a reporting mechanism aimed at preventing the use of forced labour in global supply chains. In the fashion industry, modern slavery legislation pursues the ambitions of activist movements that have long campaigned for increased knowledge about supply chain practices to improve the labour conditions of garment workers, especially for those in the Global South. In recent years, such campaigns against the entrenched opacity of the global fashion system have given rise to a transparency industry built on practices of auditing and supply chain management, including in relation to modern slavery legislation. This article analyses 10 modern slavery statements submitted to the online Modern Slavery Register by fashion brands operating in Australia in the 2019–2020 reporting period to explore how the Modern Slavery Act 2018 participates in colonial relations of power. It focuses on three aspects of the statements: factory reporting and third-party auditing, corporate grievance mechanisms, and risks associated with COVID-19. Finally, the article argues that while improved transparency can generate positive outcomes for workers, the reporting required by modern slavery legislation is often more concerned with providing assurances about labour standards to consumers and stakeholders in the Global North than with the needs or experiences of workers in the Global South.

Improvement of the legal regulation of the prohibition of forced labor in the Republic of Uzbekistan

In this article the author examines the current state of the prohibition of forced labor in the Republic of Uzbekistan, in particular, measures taken by the state to prohibit forced labor and to eradicate the worst forms of child labor. The article shows the relationship between forced labor and the principles of the prohibition of discrimination in employment and occupation and elimination of the worst forms of child labor, and draws attention to the need to harmonize the definition of forced labor, contained in the Labor Code of the Republic of Uzbekistan, with ILO Convention № 29. The circumstances contributing to the risk of the use of forced labor are defined, including imperfect legislation, in particular the absence in the Labor Code of Uzbekistan of a closed list of jobs that do not constitute forced labor. The article notes that unreasonable narrowing of the term “forced labor” in the Code of the Republic of Uzbekistan on administrative responsibility often limits the possibility of bringing to justice those guilty of using forced labor. On the basis of the analysis of administrative and criminal responsibility for forced labor according to the legislation of the Republic of Uzbekistan the need to extend the scope of the articles on responsibility for forced labor to legal entities was substantiated. Despite the positive dynamics of development in the sphere of prohibition of forced labor in the Republic of Uzbekistan, the author concludes that an integral part of this process should be the solution of a range of economic, organizational and social measures, the implementation of which is impossible without improving national legislation, bringing it into conformity with international labor standards.

Повсякденне життя подільських селян у період нацистської окупації (за матеріалами села Мельниківець, що на Вінниччині)

The aim of the article is to cover the Podillia peasants daily life during the Nazi occupation on the basis of Melnykivtsi village,Vinnytsia region. The research methodology is based on a combination of general scientific, special-historical and interdisciplinary methods of microhistorical research, taking into account the principles of systematicity, historicism, human-centeredness, scientificity and verification. The scientific novelty lies in the authors' attempt, from the standpoint of a specific microhistorical study, to characterize the life and way of life of the Podillia peasantry during the Nazi occupation. A wide range of unpublished sources are involved in the analysis, the vast majority of which are being introduced into scientific circulation for the first time Conclusions. From the first days of the Nazi-occupation, on the instructions of the authorities, the peasants actively participated in the formation of local authorities, delegating to their composition the most authoritative fellow villagers. Archival documents and eyewitness accounts show that the vast majority of the elected officials did not serve the occupiers, although they were forced to perform their duties. In order to save the lives of their fellow villagers, many of them tried to prevent provocations and avoid conflicts with the occupying authorities, as well as to provide assistance in case of food shortages. In the initial period, the repression of the occupying power was directed exclusively against the communist-Komsomol activists of the village. The vast majority of residents, including former prisoners of war, were able to engage in agriculture by paying taxes. However, with the defeats on the fronts and the intensification of the anti-Nazi resistance, the policy of the occupying authorities changed: repression against the Ukrainian national movement intensified; the activity of educational institutions is prohibited; the use of forced labor has been intensified, etc. At this time, hopes for the loyalty of the occupation regime were finally dashed among the local population. After the liberation of the Nazi-occupied territory, Soviet law enforcement agencies began repressing the peasantry, accusing them of collaborating with the Nazis. All those who held any position during the occupation were prosecuted, regardless of the nature and results of their activities.

Closing the Accountability Gap in Corporate Supply Chains for Violations of the Trafficking Victims Protection Act

AbstractOver 40 million people around the world are victims of modern forms of slavery: forced labour and human trafficking. People are tricked into working under onerous conditions, and unable to leave or return home due to physical, psychological or financial coercion, and many of these trafficking victims produce goods for United States (US) and other multinational corporations that profit by relying on the lower wages earned by workers in their global supply chains. Well-developed legal standards prohibit these practices, and governments, intergovernmental organizations, business associations and non-governmental organizations have developed mechanisms to prevent, detect and provide redress to victims. Some businesses lead or comply with the standards and enforcement mechanisms, but too many do not. US law offers a powerful but under-utilized tool to address trafficking: the 2008 Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act (TVPRA), which imposes civil liability on those who ‘knew or should have known’ about forced labour or human trafficking in their corporate ventures. Unfortunately, courts have ignored or misinterpreted this standard, at times confusing civil and criminal provisions of the statute. Correct and vigorous legal enforcement is key to addressing the accountability gap between the well-developed standards and the continuing use of forced labour and human trafficking. This article is the first to demonstrate that, with regard to the TVPRA standard, corporations have long been on notice of both the obligation to effectively monitor labour conditions and the mechanisms that would accomplish that task. US courts must enforce the ‘knew or should have known’ standard to protect workers – the most vulnerable people in the supply chain – and to prevent an unfair competitive advantage over companies that have established compliance programmes that actually prevent and punish human trafficking and forced labour.

Responses to the Uyghur Crisis and the Implications for Business and Human Rights Legislation

As has now been well publicized, there is serious and credible evidence that Uyghur and other minority communities in China are being forced into internment or ‘re-education’ camps,1 with strong links to subsequent forced labour in factories, particularly centred in Xinjiang province.2 The use of forced labour (intimately connected to many international supply chains) as a hallmark feature of the Chinese state’s oppression of its Uyghur peoples requires a ‘business and human rights’ (BHR) lens to responses to the human rights violations in the region.

Forced Labour in the Industry of the Middle Volga Region in the First Half of the XIX Century

Introduction. Industrial development of Russia in the first half of the XIX century characterized by the existence of various forms and methods of labour organization in the industrial production system. The owners of large enterprises used different practices of attracting labour force, which gave rise to socio-economic and legal heterogeneity of workers. The article considers the importance of compulsory forms of labour organization, which played a significant role in Russian industry until the early 1860s. Materials and Methods. When solving the set research tasks, materials from the funds of federal and regional archives, published sources, as well as scientific literature were used. To analyze the nature and direction of the processes taking place in the industry of serf Russia, the modernization theory was used. The need to process a significant array of quantitative data required the use of a statistical method. Results. Based on the study of archival and published sources, as well as the available scientific literature on the topic, the main categories of workers employed in the industry of the Middle Volga region within the boundaries of the Kazan, Penza and Simbirsk provinces were identified, their quantitative analysis was carried out, and some parameters were considered that show the specifics of their social-economic and legal situation. The study showed that the army of forced labor in the industrial sphere of the region in question was represented mainly by possessive workers, as well as serfs, who were reoriented to industrial labor by their owners. During the implementation of the research program, the conclusion was drawn: despite the growth in the use of hired labour in domestic industry in the first half of the 19th century, the Middle Volga region remained one of the regions where the practice of using forced labour in industrial enterprises not only persisted, but also intensified. Discussion and Conclusion. As the study shows, the dynamics of the change in the ratio of forced and civilian labour was multidirectional. In particular, in the industry of the Kazan province, the prevalence of civilian workers was noted, the proportion of which steadily increased throughout the period under study. On the contrary, with regard to the Penza and Simbirsk provinces, there was an increase in the use of forced labor, which was associated with the intensification of industrial entrepreneurship of the nobles. In the sectoral plan, the most active use of serf labor in industry was recorded in the cloth and distillery industries. It should be noted that in the second quarter of the XIX century the practice of using monetary forms of payment by industrial nobles for the labour of their own serfs. In the Kazan province, forced labour was represented mainly by the possessory workers of the Kazan cloth factory. By the early 1850s they were removed from the system of “possession law” and passed into the free estates. The presence of possessional workers was also recorded at metallurgical plants in the Penza province, which continued to remain on the “possession rights” until the early 1860s. In general, we can conclude that a specific feature of Russian industry in the pre-reform period was the extreme limitation of the “legal” free labor market, which led to the preservation of a large role for compulsory forms of labor organization.

The Camp Economy in the USSR: on Historiography of Forced Labor Efficiency

The article intends to review the scientific literature, devoted to economic activity of GULAG in the late 1920s and in the early 1940s. Comparative analysis of the existing approaches to the issue of the camp economy efficiency is presented in the paper. The efficiency of the camp economy is usually based on the use of forced labor. Some researchers suppose that GULAG existence allowed the ruling top to achieve their political goals while bearing significant economic losses. Other scholars emphasize the special importance of GULAG for the state administration, which included its ability to concentrate the labor force in the necessary production sites and fulfill the plan in the shortest possible time, achieving the needed results. As for the correlation between the expenses and the outcomes, it was of lower priority. In other words, the state government made more emphasis on attaining production effect rather than on increased economic efficiency. This point of view was found in most publications made by Russian and foreign researchers of GULAG. The author of the present article supposes this approach to be reasonable and most optimal, as it considers the camp economy in reliance to the conditions and functions, created specifically for its needs, but not as an isolated phenomenon. The paper also provides some ideas concerning to the present problem and its potential for future research.

Боротьба з жебрацтвом у Херсонській губернії (друга половина ХІХ – початок ХХ ст.)

У статті розкрито боротьбу уряду та благодійних товариств з жебрацтвом у Херсонській губернії в другій половині ХІХ – на початку ХХ ст. Зазначено причини появи жебрацтва, його основні форми та види. Розглянуто діяльність Будинків працелюбності в Одесі, Миколаєві та Херсоні, їх допомогу у справі добровільного працевлаштування нужденних, проекти заснування робітних будинків для примусового працевлаштування жебраків, а також реформування законодавства щодо заходів боротьби з жебрацтвом.

THE IDEOLOGICAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS OF PEASANT EXILE IN 1930-1940 (ON THE EXAMPLE OF THE OSTYAKO-VOGULSKY NATIONAL DISTRICT)

History of the Khanty-Mansiysk Autonomous Okrug is an integral part of the Russian history. Event of regional history are often becomes the subject of study of a wide range of researchers. The purpose of the article is to analyze the ideological and socioeconomic factors of the peasant exile in 1930-1940 on the example of the OstyakoVogulsky National District. The work presents an analysis of state policy towards kulaks. The Orders presented in the article, the Decrees, the analysis of the policies pursued by the Soviet authorities, allow us to consider the ideological foundations of the kulak exile. Socio-economic factors reflect the process of special settlements system development, the use of forced labor of special settlers in the Ostyako-Vogulsky National District, its ways and measures. Describes the process of settlement of Ostyako-Vogulsky National District special resettlers. Special villages were organized in areas where there was a shortage of labor. Special settlers contributed to the active development of the Ostyako-Vogulsky National district. The author highlights the issues of employment in rural areas of special settle, as well as associated difficulties and their overcoming. Shown their contribution in development of the economic potential of the region, various sector of the economy. The data presented in the article confirm that the settlers made up the bulk of the workforce in the forestry and fishing industries of the region and made a significant contribution to the development of the district. Forced resettlements of dekulakized peasants contributed to fundamental changes in the district. There was an increase in the population of the OstyakoVogulsky National District, new settlements appeared due to special settlements.

Ivan Turgenev and Alexis de Tocqueville on the Economic Consequences of Serfdom and Forced Labor

The initial paragraph of Turgenev"s “Khor and Kalinych” (the opening story of A Sportsman"s Sketches) contrasts the society and economy of two neighboring regions. The key difference between their two ways of life hinges on the use of forced labor in one region and its absence in the other. Although Turgenev"s description is certainly based on firsthand knowledge, it can be argued that the literary device he uses was inspired by a passage in De la démocratie en Amérique by Alexis de Tocqueville, who also contrasts the ways of life in two American states separated by a river with slave labour in one versus free labour in the other. Nor was Tocqueville the first to make use of a river separating economically divergent worlds: that device appears in Arthur Young"s Travels in France. Although Tocqueville and Turgenev have much in common on this topic, Tocqueville was an inquirer who concentrated on the destructive influence of slavery on the slave owners themselves and their society, while Turgenev in A Sportsman"s Sketches was a short story writer who showed how the institution of serfdom brutalized the serfs.

Violence, Development, and Canada’s New Transnational Jurisprudence

For decades, Canadian-based corporate development projects have been linked to acts of violence in countries all over the world. These acts include sexual violence, destruction of property, community displacement, the use of forced labor, and other forms of violence. While Canada has repeatedly failed to pass legislation holding Canadian-based corporations accountable for human rights abuses committed abroad, Canadian courts are increasingly asserting their jurisdiction over cases of development-related violence. Analyzing two ongoing court cases—Caal v. Hudbay, regarding sexual violence in Guatemala, and Araya v. Nevsun, regarding forced labor in Eritrea— this article examines the potential and limits of law to address the bureaucratic mechanisms and grounded experiences of corporate-development-related violence, and the changing relationship between states, corporations, law, and human rights in the modern global era.