US Olympic Research Articles

Finding the Most Reliable Dope on Doping

EVEN ATHLETES who have no interest in taking performance-enhancing substances need to learn about the substances that they may be tested for. The innocent use of the wrong over-the-counter cold remedy or an herbal tea from a health food store could land them in a lot of trouble with their sport's governing body. At the very least, the athlete's physician should be able to advise him or her where to get the most up-to-date information on substances that are prohibited by the athlete's sport governing body, says Lyn R. Frumkin, MD, PhD, associate director for clinical research at Amgen, Thousand Oaks, Calif. Frumkin is one of the US Olympic Committee's (USOC's) physician crew chiefs who supervise the collection and processing of urine samples from US Olympic athletes. The USOC, which operates a complete drug-testing program equivalent to the International Olympic Committee's (IOC's) program, distributes an official list of banned substances.

Tougher Drug Tests for Centennial Olympic Games

US ATHLETES preparing for the Centennial Olympic Games in Atlanta, Ga, scheduled for July, are being subjected to the most stringent, expensive, and intrusive drug-testing program in international sports. At any time of day, on any day, members of the US Olympic Committee (USOC) drug control crew may knock on the athlete's door without warning to witness the collection of a urine sample. By most accounts, only a small minority of elite athletes are willing to use pharmaceutical tricks in hopes of gaining an edge over their competitors. Nevertheless, the actions of these few have created major headaches for sport governing bodies. The desire to win at any cost has been driving more and more of the offenders to use increasingly sophisticated chemical tactics in hopes of escaping detection by current drug-testing methods. According to Wade Exum, MD, MBA, USOC director of Drug Control Administration, USOC budgets approximately $1.5 million

Psychological foundations of olympic wrestling excellence: Reconciling individual differences and nomothetic characterization

Abstract This manusuipt presents a portion of a larger study fuaded by a grant From USA This manuscript is one in a series presenting results of an in-depth investigation of the 1988 US Olympic Wrestling team regarding psychological factors influencing performance in the Seoul Olympics. Previous reports have shown clear nomothetic differences between medal and nonmedal winning wrestlers (Gould, Eklund, & Jackson, 1992a, 1992b, 1992c). This particular article focuses on identifying individual differences among the six medal winning wrestlers. Results revealed that clear and important individual differences existed in the medalists' Perceptions of expectations placed upon them and the content and complexity of their preperformancc mental preparation strategies. These findines show that focusing on nomothetic consistency and aggregathg over subjects to remove individual “error” or foCusing only on individual Werences and ignoring nomothetic consistency is not as useful as Silverstein's (1988) “Aristotelian R...

Violence in America: Time to Bite the Bullet Back

To the Editor. —After reading the June 10, 1992, issue ofJAMA, it is clear that a consensus seems to be emerging on how to solve the epidemic of firearm violence sweeping our country. The message is that gun control, and possibly destruction of anything that shoots, is the cure. Clearly, this will be a bitter pill to swallow for many sectors of our society, such as people living in rural areas where there are more cows than gang members. There also will be strong opposition from groups that promote civic, responsible, and sporting use of firearms such as the NRA, the National Shooting Sports Foundation, and the US Olympic Committee. But drastic times require drastic cures as stated by Koop and Lundberg: Firearms are intended to be lethal weapons.1Research into why, in present-day society, guns turn people into killers is needed but must await more pressing public

Mental Practice among Olympic Athletes

Recent research has focused on the relation of mental rehearsal, specifically visualization, to enhanced performance. Some have suggested that mental practice enhances performance on cognitive tasks more than on motoric ones. The present study describes two waves of survey data from elite track and field athletes before the 1988 US Olympic trials ( n = 633) and those same athletes after the Olympic Games in Seoul ( n = 450). The focus was on several measures of mental practice and visualization, including internal and external perspectives and association with sociodemographic data, prior collegiate experience, coaching influences, and Olympic team selection. Analyses suggest that mental practice may be associated with more successful track and field performance for selected groups of athletes.

The Prescription and Proscription of Chorionic Gonadotropin-Reply

In Reply. — As pointed out by Drs Amelar and Dubin, chorionic gonadotropin is a glycoprotein, not a steroid. It is similar in structure to the other glycoprotein gonadotropins, luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone, and also resembles luteinizing hormone in its ability to stimulate testosterone production by the Leydig cells of the testis. Presumably, it is because of this androgenic activity that chorionic gonadotropin is used by athletes, although such practices sometimes defy logical explanation. Though the evidence that such use is widespread is unconvincing, there is concern that chorionic gonadotropin is used and abused in the same manner and for the same purpose as the anabolic-androgenic steroids. Therefore, chorionic gonadotropin has been placed on the list of banned substances by the National Collegiate Athletic Association and the US Olympic Committee and has been included in state controlled substances laws such as that of New York State. The writers' comments

Exercise and "the pill": putting a rumor to rest.

Every once in a while, female athletes hear the rumor that oral contraceptives (OCs) keep them from performing their best. Yet, studies that have tried to evaluate the effects of OCs on physically active women have not been conclusive. This rumor probably started with the initial, higher-dose formulations instead of with the current biphasic or triphasic OCs. Side effects of the higher-dose OCs included weight gain, nausea, fatigue, headaches, and increased risks of hypertension, thromboembolism, and changes in glucose and lipid metabolism. Current OCs minimize these side effects and the risk of complications. In fact, the aerobic exercise female athletes undergo most likely neutralizes the negative effects of OCs on coagulation and lipid metabolism. Further, OCs may even improve athletic performance because they can decrease bleeding, the risk of iron deficiency, and frequency of cramps. Moreover, athletes can use OCs to orchestrate their menstrual cycles around competitive meets. Some studies with small sample sizes show that athletes on OCs experience a slight reduction in functional aerobic capacity and endurance capability. A Swedish study of female soccer players reported that OC users suffer fewer traumatic injuries than nonusers. It is difficult to attribute this to OCs, because there is considerable psychological control over sports performance. A sports physician in Hawaii is aware of rumors that OCs induce sluggishness or fatigue during certain days of the month, but he does not know a female athlete who believes this. The head trainer of the US Olympic Committee says that many female Olympic athletes use OCs. Strenuous exercise, considerable weight loss, and possibly other stress factors induce athletic amenorrhea, especially in adolescent females. In many cases, OCs can treat it. They are especially needed to minimize the risk of reduced bone density and musculoskeletal injury.

Treatment of the Asthmatic Athlete

The early recognition and appropriate management of EIB can allow children and adolescents to participate fully in physical activities and sports. The diagnosis by history of chest congestion, coughing, and decreasing performance with exercise is helpful but is aided by a more systematic questionnaire that can detect otherwise healthy people with EIB. The diagnosis is finalized by performance of an exercise test such as a treadmill test or cycloergometer test to verify bronchospasm induced by exercise. The management can be accomplished by nonpharmacologic means such as participation in an early vigorous warm-up period, use of a face mask for rebreathing of warm air, or participation in a physical training program to increase anaerobic fitness. Medications for pharmacologic management include the use of cromolyn sodium, β-adrenergic agonists, theophylline, ipratromium bromide, and calcium channel blocking agents. In addition, the antihistamine terfenadine also can be used to effectively block exercise-induced bronchospasm in mild to moderate asthmatic patients. The medications can be used by those participating in both national and international competition when approved by the national governing body or the US Olympic Committee and the International Olympic Committe.

802 EXCESS HETEROZYGOSITY OF HAPTOGLOBIN IN ELITE ENDURANCE RUNNERS AND CYCLISTS

EPO Biology, Univ. of Colorado, Boulder and Sports Science Program, US Olympic Committee, Colorado Springs, Colorado.

Amateur Boxing Injuries at the US Olympic Training Center.

In brief: A survey was conducted of boxing injuries at the US Olympic Training Center (USOTC) from January 1977 through August 1987. The purpose was to determine the types of acute and chronic injuries sustained by amateurs during training, sparring, and competition. During the study period 447 injuries occurred. (The total number of boxers was unobtainable.) Most injuries were to the upper extremity (32.9%), followed by the lower extremity (23.9%), head and face (including eyes, ears, nose, and mouth/throat) (20.5%), and back (6.9%). Cerebral injuries accounted for only 6.5% of all injuries, probably because boxing at the USOTC is primarily noncompetitive and more blows to the head occur during competition than during sparring and training.

Injury rates during the 1988 US Olympic Team Trials for taekwondo.

Injury rates were recorded during the 1988 US Olympic Team Trials for taekwondo involving 48 men and 48 women. The injury rate for men (12.74/100 athlete-exposures) was about 40 per cent higher than the rate for women (9.01/100 athlete-exposures). The foot and the head were the most frequently injured body parts. Contusions were the predominant type of injury, and concussions were recorded for both men and women. A large proportion (41 per cent) of the men's injuries were the result of receiving a blow from an unblocked attack. For the women the most common injury situation (40 per cent) was while attacking with a kick. For both men and women, 15 per cent of the reported injuries were time-loss injuries. The head injuries found in this study are discussed with reference to the high impact velocities and momentum levels generated during taekwondo kicking. Recommendations are made with regard to protective equipment testing and rule changes to reduce the possibility of cerebral injury.

Drug Testing of Athletes: Test the Team's Pooled Urine

To the Editor.— The statement by James C. Puffer, MD, head physician for the US Olympic team in Seoul, South Korea, in the December 23/30 issue of JAMA 1 that it would be desirable, in his opinion, to have random testing during both training and competition periods attracted my attention. The problem of discrimination and individual rights, individual player contracts, and so on can be overcome by having all athletes, coaches, and other persons who appear on behalf of the winning team on the field or playing floor contribute a urine sample immediately after winning a competition. Portions from each sample could be mixed and the combination tested for drugs of abuse. If the sample is positive, the team loses the competition. No identifiers of individual persons are required. All individual records achieved in the game would stand. The score book would otherwise not be harmed. Yards gained, points scored,

US Olympic Figure Skaters: Honing Their Performances.

Some 1988 US Olympic figure skaters, and many of the elite junior figure skaters who are future Olympic hopefuls, are taking strides toward perfecting their performances. Their edge: applied biomechanics and physical conditioning.

Sex Chromatin Screening of Female Athletes-Reply

In Reply.— Soon after my article appeared in JAMA , a number of newspapers carried an interview with Dr Robert O. Voy of the US Olympic Committee in which he defended the sex chromatin screening procedure. He was quoted as saying that sex chromatin is only the first screening used and that he knows of no inaccurate results after a full examination ( Champaign-Urbana News Gazette , Oct 10, 1986, p B5).

Sex Chromatin Screening of Female Athletes

To the Editor.— While I agree with Drs de la Chapelle 1 and Simpson 2 that the sex chromatin screening method presently used by the International Olympic Committee to verify gender is problematic, alternative screening methods are inadequate for determining the sex of athletes. In response to differences in performance between the sexes, segregation of athletic contests by sex has been both a desirable and a necessary goal. 3,4 The rationale espoused by the US Olympic Committee for separation of the sexes in the majority of events is that it ensures the matching of persons of equal strength. While Drs de la Chapelle and Simpson argue that the fundamental failure of sex chromatin screening is that it assesses the least relevant parameter of sex, alternative screening methods are inferior as a determinant of sex where the participant intends to compete against others on the basis of physical ability. For example,

Changes in serum enzymes, lactate, and haptoglobin following acute physical stress in international-class athletes

Skeletal muscle is rich in creatine kinase (CK), lactate dehydrogenase (LD), and other enzymes. Many reports describe changes in serum CK and LD following exercise. In our study, 11 male international-class medium-distance runners were followed over a 10-month period prior to the 1984 US Olympic Trials. Cardiorespiratory fitness, evaluated through repetitive treadmill testing, was unchanged in our athletes. Total CK increased significantly during the course of training, and the CK-MB activity was higher than that of sedentary individuals; CK-MB never rose to more than 3% of the total CK. Total LD also rose following acute exercise; however, the proportions of the five isoenzymes were unaltered. There was no change in the LD-1/LD-2 ratio from normal. The origin of the increased serum enzymes was believed to be primarily skeletal muscle. A decrease of serum haptoglobin following acute stress was attributed to intravascular hemolysis and binding of hemoglobin. As expected, serum lactate was dramatically increased immediately postexercise.

Blood Doping: Results and Consequences From the Laboratory and the Field.

In brief: Just as Roman gladiators drank the blood of foes to gain strength, modern Olympians have infused the blood of friends as well as their own to gain endurance. Blood doping, which tainted the triumphs of the 1984 US Olympic cyclists, has at last been banned. This literature review defines blood doping, discusses its use and rationale, and presents some of the research findings. The conclusion is that blood doping, properly performed, works in the laboratory, but there is insufficient evidence to show conclusively that it works in the field.

AEROBIC ???ECONOMY??? AND COMPETITIVE SWIMMING PERFORMANCE

Sports Physiology Laboratory, US Olympic Committee 1750 East Boulder St., Colorado Springs, CO 80909

Training Stress in Olympic Speed Skaters: A Psychological Perspective

In brief: The psychological impact of prolonged training was assessed in 11 male contenders for the 1980 US Olympic Speed Skating Team. The subjects were evaluated six months before the December 1979 Olympic Winter Trials, at the end of summer training, and immediately before and after the trials. The psychological assessment consisted of a semistructured interview and the Profile of Mood States rating scale. Results showed that the skaters selected for the team responded to training with decreasing depression and increasing vigor, reaching a psychological peak just before the trials. Those not selected fluctuated more in mood and never recovered pretraining levels of vigor.

Have We Learned a Lesson About Drugs in Sports?

US athletes are wary of how much the drug issue will be a part of the Olympics next summer. But they are relieved about a drug testing policy developed by the US Olympic Committee.