Triathlon Race Research Articles

PRE-EXISTING MEDICAL PROBLEMS AMONG IRONMAN TRIATHLON WORLD CHAMPIONSHIPS ENTRANTS

An Ironman triathlon is a grueling test of an athlete's skill and endurance, involving a 2.4-mile swim, a 112-mile bike and a 26.2-mile run. The 2001 Ironman Triathlon World Championships in Kona, Hawaii involved 1,518 entrants who ranged in age from 19 to 78. Knowledge of common pre-existing medical conditions would be helpful to race medical staff in planning for potential complications, and in advising patients with medical problems who are contemplating participation in such a strenuous event. PURPOSE: To determine common pre-existing medical problems among Ironman entrants. METHODS: We reviewed the medical data from each participant's pre-race questionnaire to ascertain the types and frequency of medical problems among this year's entrants. RESULTS: Of the 1,518 entrants, only 102 (6.7%) reported pre-existing medical problems. The most common reported problems were asthma or EIA (37), allergic rhinitis (12), hypothyroidism (10), hypercholesterolemia (6), gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) (5), and hypertension (6). Several entrants disclosed more serious chronic diseases including atrial fibrillation (2), Crohn's disease (2), lymphoma (2), diabetes (1), epilepsy (1), and cystic fibrosis (1). Additionally, 25 entrants (1.7%) reported a pre-existing physical condition. The most common were recent fractures (within a year) (3), below the knee amputation (2), paraplegia (2) and a single kidney (2). Additionally, 43 athletes reported a history of hypersensitivity to bee's, wasps, or jellyfish. Only 86 entrants (5.7%) reported significant problems associated with past triathlon races, the most common of which were dehydration (57), hyponatremia (10), and heat exhaustion (3). CONCLUSIONS: Based on our review, it is clear that entrants into the Ironman Triathlon World Championships represent a healthy cohort of athletes, however a small percentage compete despite a history of serious medical and physical conditions.

Specific aspects of contemporary triathlon: implications for physiological analysis and performance.

Triathlon competitions are performed over markedly different distances and under a variety of technical constraints. In 'standard-distance' triathlons involving 1.5km swim, 40km cycling and 10km running, a World Cup series as well as a World Championship race is available for 'elite' competitors. In contrast, 'age-group' triathletes may compete in 5-year age categories at a World Championship level, but not against the elite competitors. The difference between elite and age-group races is that during the cycle stage elite competitors may 'draft' or cycle in a sheltered position; age-group athletes complete the cycle stage as an individual time trial. Within triathlons there are a number of specific aspects that make the physiological demands different from the individual sports of swimming, cycling and running. The physiological demands of the cycle stage in elite races may also differ compared with the age-group format. This in turn may influence performance during the cycle leg and subsequent running stage. Wetsuit use and drafting during swimming (in both elite and age-group races) result in improved buoyancy and a reduction in frontal resistance, respectively. Both of these factors will result in improved performance and efficiency relative to normal pool-based swimming efforts. Overall cycling performance after swimming in a triathlon is not typically affected. However, it is possible that during the initial stages of the cycle leg the ability of an athlete to generate the high power outputs necessary for tactical position changes may be impeded. Drafting during cycling results in a reduction in frontal resistance and reduced energy cost at a given submaximal intensity. The reduced energy expenditure during the cycle stage results in an improvement in running, so an athlete may exercise at a higher percentage of maximal oxygen uptake. In elite triathlon races, the cycle courses offer specific physiological demands that may result in different fatigue responses when compared with standard time-trial courses. Furthermore, it is possible that different physical and physiological characteristics may make some athletes more suited to races where the cycle course is either flat or has undulating sections. An athlete's ability to perform running activity after cycling, during a triathlon, may be influenced by the pedalling frequency and also the physiological demands of the cycle stage. The technical features of elite and age-group triathlons together with the physiological demands of longer distance events should be considered in experimental design, training practice and also performance diagnosis of triathletes.

Prediction of triathlon race time from laboratory testing in national triathletes.

Four days after competing in an Olympic-distance National Triathlon Championship (1500-m swim, 40-km cycle, 10-km run), five male and five female triathletes underwent comprehensive physiological testing in an attempt to determine which physiological variables accurately predict triathlon race time. All triathletes underwent maximal swimming tests over 25 and 400 m, the determination of peak sustained power output (PPO) and peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak) during an incremental cycle test to exhaustion, and a maximal treadmill running test to assess peak running velocity and VO2peak. In addition, submaximal steady-state measures of oxygen uptake (VO2), blood [lactate], and heart rate (HR) were determined during the cycling and running tests. The five most significant (P < 0.01) predictors of triathlon performance were blood lactate measured during steady-state cycling at a workload of 4 W x kg(-1) body mass (BM) (r = 0.92), blood lactate while running at 15 km x h(-1) (r = 0.89), PPO (r = 0.86), peak treadmill running velocity (r = 0.85), and VO2peak during cycling (r = 0.85). Stepwise multiple regression analysis revealed a highly significant (r = 0.90, P < 0.001) relationship between predicted race time (from laboratory measures) and actual race time, from the following calculation: race time (s) = - 129 (peak treadmill velocity [km x h(-1)]) + 122 ([lactate] at 4 W x kg(-1) BM) + 9456. The results of this study show that race time for top triathletes competing over the Olympic distance can be accurately predicted from the results of maximal and submaximal laboratory measures.

Kinetics of HR and La concentration in blood during a triathlon race in young triathletes

Kinetics of HR and La concentration in blood during a triathlon race in young triathletes

No evidence of oxidative stress after a triathlon race in highly trained competitors.

Long distance triathlons, due to the large amounts of oxygen uptake they cause, may lead to the generation of reactive oxygen species, and consequently to oxidative stress and damage. We sought to verify this hypothesis. Twelve of the 18 male triathletes who participated in the study took part in a long distance triathlon, the others did not. The prerace blood samples were drawn 48 h before the race and repeatedly until the fourth day of recovery. The myoglobin concentrations increased immediately after the race. The concentrations of methemoglobin, disulfide glutathione (GSSG), and thiobarbituric reactive substances did not significantly change after the race. Although the race induced an inflammatory response, evidenced by the variations in neopterin concentrations and leukocyte counts, there was no consecutive oxidative stress. The basal GSH values were correlated significantly with cycling training volume (r = 0.55) and VO2max (r = 0.53). Muscle damage can occur without evidence of oxidative stress or oxidative damage. We conclude that the magnitude of the antioxidant defense system enhancement depends on training loads. Because of their training status, the triathletes did not suffer from oxidative damage after they finished the long distance triathlon race.

Factors limiting performance in the triathlon

Triathlon is a multievent sport (swimming, cycling, running). Long duration triathlons can induce physiological stress that can be modulated by environmental conditions. Certain factors promote performance, others limit it. A minimal level of maximal oxygen uptake is required, but it does not always determine the performance. For triathletes, the low hematocrit values do not reflect anemia and therefore do not limit performance. The appearance of clinical signs of dehydration and of digestive impairment may limit performance. The performance in swimming does not play the most important role in triathlon performance, but the physiological conditions in which the first transition is made can limit performance in the two following events; this is also the case for the second transition. Triathlon races cause muscle damage whose signs persist several days. Given the hormonal responses and the indices of muscle damage, it appears necessary to rest at least 5 days to avoid over-training. It is difficult to define precisely how much one should train for each of the three events. However, it can be concluded that triathlon training has to be taken as a whole.

Effects of a competitive triathlon on plasma concentrations of tryptophan and branched-chain amino acids

The aim of this work was to determine the acute responses of tryptophan and branched chain amino acids to a triathlon competition. Fourteen male triathletes were studied. All took part in a international triathlon race consisting of 1,5 km swimming, 40 km biking and 10 km running. Venous blood samples were drawn before (-24 h) and after (15 min) the triathlon. Plasma concentration of branched chain amino acids and total and free tryptophan were determined. Branched chain amino acids decreased from 463 - 108.3 to 364 - 98.9 mol/L (p < 0.03). Free tryptophan increases from 9.2 to 16.3 mol/L (p < 0.006). Furthermore the ratio of free trytophan to branched chain amino acids increased from 2.07 - 0.48 to 4.24 - 0.79 (p < 0.001). This increases the rate of transport of tryptophan accross the blood-brain barrier and also increases the rate of synthesis of 5-hydroxytryptamine in the central nervous system. A high presence of 5-hydroxytryptamine in the brain develops physical and mental fatigue during the triathlon. This data support the participation of amino acids in fatigue process during triathlon

Detection of the exercise-associated changes in serum proteins by two-dimensional electrophoresis under non-denaturing conditions

The changes in serum proteins caused by physical exercise (10-km run) were examined using two-dimensional electrophoresis under non-denaturing conditions. Two specific proteins were found to increase remarkably in amount. Both proteins had a slightly higher molecular mass than albumin, which suggests that they are albumin-bound with large amounts of sugars or lipids. However, these proteins were not adsorbed on an anti-albumin affinity column, and they were not stained by either periodic acid-Schiff base or Sudan Black. The molecular mass was determined to be 25 000 by sodium dodecyl sulphate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The changes of the specific proteins in competitors in a triathlon race were also examined.

低水温下での水泳がその後の自転車運動に及ぼす影響

Six trained male swimmers participated in the present study as subjects. They swam in water at 20℃ and 27℃ for each 30 minute, and rode on a bicycle ergometer for 30-min submaximal cycling and exhaustive cycling. At the termination of the swimming at 20℃, rectal temperature (T_<re>) was significantly lower when compared to the swimming at 27℃ (20℃: 36.29 ± 0.77℃, 27℃: 37.15 ± 0.39℃). During the submaximal cycling after 30-min swimming at 20℃,heart rate (f_H) was consistently lower (p<0.05) than the swimming at 27℃ until 20 min of cycling. The mean difference of f_H was 12 beats/min. During the exhaustive cycling which followed 3O-min swimming at 20℃, the peak heart rate (peak f_H) and oxygen uptake (peak V_<o2>) were significantly lower compared to 30-min swimming at 27℃: 169 ± 7 beats/min, 3155 ± 117ml/min (46.3 ml/kg・min^<-1>) and 150 ± 8 beats/min, 2928 ± 148 ml/min (42:9 ml/kg・min^<-1>),respectively. The peak fH and exhaustion time were significantly correlated to the rectal temperature at the beginning of the exhaustive cycling. As for the concentration of blood lactate and free fatty acids, no significant differences between 20℃ and 27℃ trials were observed during both submaximal and exhaustive cyclings. From these observations, it is concluded that the decrease in rectal temperature and the increase in oxygen uptake observed during 30-min swimming at 20℃ as compared to the swimming at 27℃ resulted in the decrease of fH until 20min of post-swimming submaximal cycling and in the decrease of peak f_H, peak V^^._<o2> and performance time during post-swimming exhaustive cycling. These findings suggest that swimming in cold water, which is frequently observed on an actual triathlon race, would have some detrimental effects on the performance of post-swimming cycling.

Applied physiology of a triathlon.

The triathlon is an endurance contest in which contestants must compete in 3 consecutive events, usually swimming, cycling and running. Success in a triathlon depends upon the ability of the triathlete to perform each of the sequential events at optimal pace without creating fatigue that will hinder performance in the next event. The successful triathlete must, therefore, have highly developed oxygen transport and utilisation systems as well as the ability to efficiently produce a high energy output for prolonged periods without creating metabolic acidosis. Accordingly, mean VO2max values for groups of triathletes during treadmill running have been reported to range from 52.4 to 72 ml/kg/min in men; 58.7 to 65.9 ml/kg/min in women. VO2max values during cycle ergometry were 3 to 6% less than treadmill running values; tethered swimming maximums 13 to 18% less. Predictable and well-known adaptations occur in the cardiovascular systems of triathletes. Structural adaptations of the heart that have been documented in triathletes include increased left ventricular cavity size or wall thickness, or both. Morphological characteristics of the triathlete's heart appear to be unrelated to success in triathlon races. Following the acute stress of triathlon competition, alterations in both systolic and diastolic function have been observed. Heart muscle fatigue is the most likely reason for these changes, since there is a rapid return to normal with rest. Like the cardiovascular system, the musculoskeletal system responds to triathlon training. Peripheral adaptations occur that lead to increased muscle respiratory capacity and to modifications in substrate utilisation. The musculoskeletal system is the site of most injuries to triathletes, and non-traumatic overuse injuries account for 80 to 85% of the musculoskeletal injuries. Maintenance of fluid and electrolyte balance is of primary importance for the triathlete both in day-to-day training and during races. Water may be an adequate replacement fluid for short distance triathlons, but some combination of carbohydrate, electrolyte and fluid replacement is necessary for longer races. Although the physiological bases for success in a triathlon are not well understood at present, the ability to maintain minimal alterations in the homeostasis of cardiovascular, haemodynamic, thermal, metabolic, and musculoskeletal functions are of obvious importance.

Medical care at ultraendurance triathlons

With the increasing participation in triathlons of all distances has come a corresponding increase in the need for competent medical information relating to the care of these triathletes. Although medical organization at triathlons involves certain principles which should be applied regardless of race specifics, there are certain other arrangements that will vary with the size and length of the event. For example, the longer races require a reliable communication system, fully equipped mobile response teams, and a larger number of medical staff. Medical communication needs can be served by having priority medical transmissions via UHF radio from mobile vans to a main medical station. An average of 2.5 physicians and 7.5 nurses and other paramedical volunteers for each group of 100 competitors has been found to be sufficient to meet the medical needs of triathletes. The swim, although having the greatest potential for catastrophe, accounts for only 1-3% of medical visits at the Hawaii Ironman Triathlon. Ten percent of injuries requiring medical evaluation at the Hawaii Ironman occur during the bike portion of the race. The rest occur either during the run or after finishing. Seventy-one percent of the total medical visits come directly from the finish line. Dehydration and exhaustion account for the majority of primary medical diagnoses. Appropriate medical care at triathlon races is necessary to aid athletes in safely experiencing their physical potentials.

Hemolysis during triathlon races: its relation to race distance.

Ninety-five triathletes were evaluated for evidence of hemolysis during triathlon races of two different distances. Thirty competitors (11 males, 19 females) were studied before and after the United States Triathlon Series (USTS) National Championship Race (1.5K swim, 40K bike, and 10K run). Pre- and post-race venous blood samples showed that 93% of the USTS athletes had decreased serum haptoglobin, post-race (mean decrease = 20%). Seven of 30 of the USTS triathletes (3 males, 4 females) were found to have occult blood in their urine, post-race. Only two of the USTS triathletes (1 male, 1 female) were anemic as judged by pre-race hemoglobin levels. Similar data were collected on 65 triatheletes (46 males, 19 females) at the Hawaii IRONMAN Triathlon World Championship (3.9K swim, 180.2K bike, and 42.2K run). Pre- and post-race venous blood samples showed that 95% of the IRONMAN athletes had decreases in serum haptoglobin, post-race (mean decrease = 32%). Occult blood was found in the post-race urine of 19 (12 males, 7 females) of the IRONMAN competitors. Nineteen IRONMAN triathletes (18 males, 1 female) were judged to be anemic from pre-race hemoglobin measurements. Data from two different length triathlons suggest that nearly all triathletes break down red blood cells during a race, and that the extent of the hemolysis is related to race distance.

Effect of heavy exercise and forced running training on serum lipid peroxide

The purpose of this present study was to evaluate the effect of heavy exercise (triathlon) on man (Exp. I) and moderate running training in rat (Exp. II) on serum lipid peroxide (SLPO). Subjects in Exp. I were 7 triathletes aged 27 to 39 yrs. Blood samplings were taken before race and immediately after completion of each sports activity. In Exp.II, SLPO was divided into 2 components, i.e., aspirin-inhibiting SLPO and other (non-specific SLPO). Wistar male rats (n= 50) 6 wks of age, were divided into 2 groups, i.e., control (n=25) and training (n=25) groups. Moderate running training was performed on treadmill for 6 wks. At 12 wks of age, exhaustive running (ER) test was performed. Blood samples were collected at rest and immediately after ER in both groups. The results of the present study were as follows : l) SLPO during triathlon race was gradually decreased, but not significant. 2) Although total SLPO at rest in trained rats was significantly increased as compared with control, non-specific SLPO at rest in both groups was not significant. 3) Total SLPO in trained rats was significantly higher than that of control after ER. Total SLPO after ER in both groups was not significantly increased as compared with resting level. 4) Non-specific SLPO after ER in both groups was not significantly different between 2 groups. 5) Non-specific SLPO after ER in both groups was significantly increased as compared with resting level. Increasing rate in control and training rats were 121% and 73%, respectively. 6) Although significant correlation was not observed between total SLPO and blood lactate, a good correlation was found between non-specific SLPO and blood lactate.

身体運動負荷後の血しょう中に検出される特異たんぱく質 その性質とトライアスロン競技における変動

A specific protein which appeared in plasma after a 10km-run was detected using two-dimensional electrophoresis, and it's properties were investigated. This specific protein was detected at almost the same position as albumin on two-dimensional gel under non-denaturing condition, but it was not adsorbed to anti-albumin-Sepharose column. The molecular weight was estimated to be 25, 000 on SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophresis. This protein was stained with periodic acid-Shiff reagent but not with Sudan Black. This protein was also detected in triathlon race, but it's increase did not definite.