Trends In Emigration Research Articles

Remittances, Investment, and Rural Asset Accumulation in Pakistan

Internal and external migration can have a profound impact on rural asset accumulation in most Third World countries. In many African, Asian, and Latin American countries the bulk of the labor force still lives in the countryside. In these countries the large difference between expected rural and urban or foreign incomes, coupled with the risk-reducing functions of migration, causes workers to migrate, either to urban centers or abroad. The remittances—defined as the money or goods sent home by migrant workers—can have a large effect on the accumulation of assets in these rural areas. For example, an inflow of external remittances to rural households at the upper end of the income distribution could increase land accumulation by the rich. In general terms the effect of remittances on asset accumulation in a rural Third World economy depends on answers to three questions: (a) Who migrates? (b) How much net income do migrants remit? and (c) What are the marginal effects of these remittances on household consumption and investment? Because of data limitations, in this article I propose to examine only the first and the third questions; other researchers have addressed the second issue. In the past surprisingly little attention has been focused on the question of the marginal effects of remittances on household consumption and investment in the rural Third World. This inattention has been due to three considerable methodological problems. The first is fungibility; because remittances are like any other form of cash income, it is difficult to associate this income source with any particular changes in household expenditure behavior. The second problem relates to the multiple-round effects of remittances on the local economy. For example, an inflow of remittances into a rural area may lead to a surge in expenditures in housing, which may, in turn, create new income and employment opportunities for the poor and unskilled. Unfortunately, however, few studies have

A Numerical Look at Rural Portuguese Political Candidates and Strategies

This article describes various local-level political strategies employed in rural Portugal since the 1974 revolution, and details some of the complexities consequent to introducing representative government to populations with little experience in public politics. The article also demonstrates quantitative analysis, done while the researcher is still in the field, can produce distinct advantages for a qualitative study, by helping to establish rapport with field residents and revealing new directions for qualitative research. (Portugal, politics, field methods) The economic anthropologist Harold K. Schneider always charged his students to count things! He maintained that the number of things was important wherever anthropologists worked and whatever their topic. Of course numbers alone cannot adequately describe a people, but accounts devoid of such prosaic observations as how many of what are equally inadequate. Such accounts are not only descriptively weak, they also neglect a valuable tool for use during fieldwork. This tool, however, demands that researchers not only develop the habit of counting things while in the field, but also search out the records of those who have counted things before them. This essay demonstrates quantitative material not only has descriptive utility, but also an elementary examination of early results while one is still in the field can lead to new avenues of qualitative research. Advanced statistics are of course desirable and informative, but the issue addressed here is that quantitative material has value even at the most basic level of simply counting things. This essay notes the collection and tabulation of quantitative data while one is in the field can serve functions not usually associated with quantitative research; e.g., establishing rapport with local people and, in some small way, helping to reimburse them for making the ethnographic study possible. NUMBERS AND MEDITERRANEAN ETHNOGRAPHY One of the Mediterranean region's greatest assets as a location for anthropological research lies in the wealth of valuable data in local and national archives. When this archival information is combined with field observations, insights can be gained into informants' responses as well as their silences. Besides documenting historical change, archival data offers cross-checks on respondents' memories and can yield perspectives which might otherwise remain undiscovered. Despite this potential, Davis (1977) argued twenty years ago that Mediterranean ethnography had not fulfilled its promise because it neither was comparative nor presented information, especially numerical information, in a form that other scholars could use for comparison. Davis did cite approvingly Jose Cutileiro's (1971) A Portuguese Rural Society, which used such data extensively. Today Portuguese ethnography is a rich source of comparative and comparable data. Davis's (1977:81) complaint about the lack of quantitative data in studies of local stratification systems is answered by many recent Portuguese ethnographies. O'Neill (1984) uses figures derived from parish records and national archives to give historical depth to the ideology of village egalitarianism in the Tras-os-Montes region of northern Portugal. Bermeo (1986) employs numerical data to firmly ground her study of the 1974 revolution's reforms of latifundia agriculture and the subsequent effect on local social systems. Brettell (1986) uses demographic data to link historical trends in male emigration, high rates of illegitimacy, late marriage, and female celibacy in a village in northwestern Portugal. In his account of village life, Pais de Brito (1991) cleverly demonstrates the utility of nontraditional quantitative sources using the ledgers of a local tavern-grocery store (taberna). An ecological study of a northwest Portuguese farming community uses quantitative data to investigate behavioral differences related to unequal access to land and cattle (Bentley 1992: 1). …

Integration of Environmental Assessment into the Regional Development Planning Process of the Galilee

/ The Galilee region on the northern edge of Israel constitutes more than 15% of the state's territory, supplies more than half of its drinking water needs, and is an important recreational resource and destination for Israelis. One of the main objectives of the plan for the Galilee was to devise a regional physical and economic development strategy for the years 1992-2007 that would arrest the trend of emigration of its residents, attract newly arrived immigrants to the region, and at the same time protect natural resources and environmental quality. This paper is limited to discussion of the environmental aspects of the plan. It analyzes spatial concepts for distribution of projected population growth, evaluates environmental impacts of alternative plans, and proposes a decision-making framework and tools for minimizing natural resources loss from development at the local level. Assessment of potential environmental impacts generated quantitative data of natural resources areas. Application of the data in the plan evaluation stage showed that the alternative that concentrated most of the new development in central Galilee was the second-best choice environmentally, but was preferred as the best choice for overall qualities. The planning study offers an alternative environmental impact assessment (EIA) process to the one presently used in Israel by incorporating environmental considerations at the initial plan-making stage and not at the plan-approval stage. It demonstrated that in order to be effective, environmental assessment and land-use planning should be seen as one effort that is integrated from the start and in each stage of the plan-making process.KEY WORDS: Environmental assessment; Development planning; Galilee

Emigration dynamics in Bangladesh.

This study of emigration dynamics opens by noting that emigration is one of the most dynamic economic and social elements in Bangladesh. The history of emigration from Bangladesh is sketched, and the level and trend of emigration is described for various destinations (especially the UK, the Middle East and North Africa, and Japan) and in terms of the socioeconomic background of migrants, channels of migration, occupations, the potential level of emigration, and applications for US Visas. The next section of the report presents the economic and demographic setting in terms of the gross national and domestic products, quality of life, the size and distribution of the population, the labor force, literacy, unemployment and underemployment, urbanization, internal migration, poverty, and income distribution. The discussion then centers on the sociopolitical setting and such factors as unmet basic human needs, the demand for expatriate workers, and emigration policy. It is concluded that the desperate economic situation in Bangladesh has combined with the demand for expatriate workers and the development of institutions to facilitate emigration. The result is increasing interest in emigration, which is fueled by mass communication highlighting the differences between the quality of life in Bangladesh and abroad.

Emigration from the Sahel.

This report on international migration from the Sahel (the band of countries which lies just south of the Sahara and extends to the Atlantic) opens with a historical overview of the region which includes a description of the response of its people to periodic droughts (including gradual migration to the south), a look at commercial expansion which led to the growth of urban centers, and the destabilizing effects of Atlantic trade and subsequent colonization. The report continues by examining 1) the ethnic and political factors which influenced migration, 2) emigration trends from the region, 3) economic factors, and 4) the effect of the agricultural system on male migration. It is noted that the agricultural sector is unlikely to meet the region's needs for food or cash and that the mining sector can generate cash but not food or sufficient jobs. Industrial growth has been limited, and only the public sector has shown consistent growth. After examining the macro-economic context formed by foreign aid and foreign debt, the current international migration situation is described. The recent phenomenon of female migrants is analyzed as a response to economic crisis. A case study is then presented of emigration from Mali with an emphasis on emigration from the Senegal River Valley which has been plagued by drought. Finally, it is projected that migration trends will continue as long as the propelling economic, environmental, and political crises continue. A need exists for programs to help migrants channel their funds for their return. In addition, collaborative development projects should incorporate the emigration process by 1) strengthening the financial contribution of emigrants, 2) incorporating return migrants, and 3) strengthening the underlying economic insecurity which exacerbates migration.

Emigration and Stability in Hong Kong

Current trends in emigration in Hong Kong are reviewed in light of the colonys scheduled 1997 reintegration with China. The author focuses on the alleged negative impact of the large-scale immigration of elites. Comparisons are made with other rapidly growing economies in the region that are also experiencing emigration of similar types of migrants. (ANNOTATION)

Emigration tendencies among Hong Kong Chinese dentists--1990.

A postal questionnaire survey was conducted in April-May 1990 among 1223 Hong Kong Chinese dentists resident in Hong Kong to ascertain their plans for emigration from the Territory, as there were no data on emigration trends among dentists. A response rate of 47 per cent was obtained. Only 7 per cent of respondents definitely did not plan to emigrate and 47 per cent planned definitely or hopefully to emigrate, mostly in the years prior to 1997. Canada, Australia and the United States of America were the destinations most commonly cited by those planning to emigrate, and only one-quarter of these have any plans to return to Hong Kong. It was concluded that the emigration and return of Hong Kong dentists would influence workforce planning in the territory, and thus should be monitored.

An Analysis of Current Canadian Emigration to the United States

This paper describes the flow of Canadians to the US. Through an analysis of data from 1960 to the present it presents a comprehensive demographic and socioeconomic profile of the single most important flow of Canadian emigrants. Other studies on the emigration of Canadians to the US are briefly examined and possible causes of the migratory flow are identified. The paper concludes with an analysis of the effects of selected economic and noneconomic factors on Canadian emigration. Through the examination of the projected performances of the Canadian and American economies and future immigration legislation in the US the authors attempt to indicate future trends in emigration from Canada to the US. (authors)

From settlers to skilled transients: The changing structure of British international migration

This paper examines trends in British emigration using the results of the International Passenger Survey. Settlement emigration has declined in importance while in the early 1980s temporary skilled labour transfers have become dominant. Two parallel mechanisms are proposed to explain the regional patterns of skilled emigration, with particular emphasis being given to the role of international recruitment agencies in controlling which skills are sought in certain regional labour markets.

Indian Emigrants: Numbers, Characteristics, and Economic Impact

Trends in emigration from India are reviewed with a focus on estimates of the numbers involved migrant characteristics and the economic impact of this migration. The author estimates that as of 1981 between 5 million and 5.5 million persons born in India were living outside India; 85 percent of these migrants were living in developing countries. The concentration of the migration of highly skilled workers to developed countries is noted. Consideration is given to remittances from abroad and their effect on the Indian economy. (summary in FRE SPA) (ANNOTATION)

Le foyer des sans-famille

Das Heim der Familienlosen. Die Unterkunft des Immigranten wirft ein verräterisches Licht auf die Vorstellung, die man sich vom Immigranten-Dasein macht ; sie enthüllt zugleich, was der Immigrant ist oder vielmehr, was aus ihm gemacht worden ist. Im Besonderen zeichnet sich das «Heim fur Immigranten-Arbeiter» durch seinen Charakter einer «Notunterkunft» aus, das heifit einer Wohnstatt, die provisorisch erbaut wurde fur Dringlichkeitsfälle, für provisorische Bewohner ohne Familie. Es läßt sich in keine konkrete juristische Kategorien einordnen : es ist weder Hotel noch möblierte Wohnung. Zwar stellt es sjch als Gemeinschaftsstätte vor, ist tatsächlich aber nur ein Ort, wo isolierte Individuen oder Gruppen von Individuen zusammengebracht werden, die sich ebenso in bezug auf ihren bisherigen Werdegang und gerade verfolgten Weg unterscheiden wie hinsichtlich der Sozialgeschichte der jeweiligen nationalen Emigrationsbewegung. Das Heim, das sich nach einem administrativen, nur die Individuen abstrakt als solche berücksichtigenden Prozeß füllt, ist gegenüber dem Logierhaus oder der möblierten Wohnung, wo aus der gleichen Gegend stammende, sich bereits kennende oder sogar verwandte Immigranten aufgenommen werden, was die Siedlung des sozialen Wohnungsbaus, blofie kollektive Wohnstätte, gegenüber dem Barackenviertel, einem Zentrum von Gemeinschaftsleben, ist. Statt sie zusammenzuführen und zu einen, isoliert das Heim die Bewohner innerhalb des Heims untereinander, aber auch gegeniiber den anderen Immigranten ; zudem zwingt es einen Lebensstil auf, den sich nicht aile Bewohner leisten können.

Recent trends in Spanish emigration

Depuis 1960, l'évolution de l'émigration permanente espagnole s'articule en deux phases. Jusqu'en 1974, elle redevient massive (100 000 émigrants par an). Elle se tourne vers l'Europe industrialisée, préférée aux nouveaux mondes, et recrute dans l'ensemble du pays, les provinces méridionales se joignant aux pôles séculaires. Les émigrants présentent alors les caractéristiques socio-démographiques classiques : jeunesse, surmasculinité, activités subalternes ou pénibles... La crise des économies industrielles a mis fin en 1974 à l'émigration vers l'Europe sans que les flux transocéaniques s'amplifient. Toutes les zones de provenance des migrants, traditionnelles ou récentes, sont affectées avec plus ou moins d'ampleur, ce qui ne saurait manquer de poser de graves problèmes d'emploi et d'équilibre de la balance des comptes dans une économie espagnole non épargnée par la crise.

Modern Emigration from Malta

Emigration is a well-established response in Malta to a severe pressure of population on resources. In this paper Maltese emigration is used as a case study to illustrate the range of factors which have influenced the level, direction and composition of international migration in recent years. The Department of Emigration in Malta provides a wide range of reliable data, which can be tested against immigration data for the major destination countries. The importance of government involvement in the migration process, both at origin and destination, is emphasized, and the problems arising from an active emigration programme in Malta are assessed. The spatial pattern of emigration by Maltese localities is related to the island's social and economic geography by multiple regression analysis. THE CRITICAL elements in any conceptualization of the migration process are, first, the factors which characterize the quality of living in potential areas of origin and destination; secondly, the perception of these factors and their relevance to the value standards and goals of potential migrants; and, thirdly, a set of intervening obstacles.1 The validity of such generalization is entirely dependent on the recognition that man's behaviour is not random or capricious, but governed by underlying forces such as Zipf's Principle of Least Effort.2 In the case of migration within a country it is possible to quantify most, although not all, of the elements in the process, so that inter-regional migration streams can be explained fairly satisfactorily in mathematical terms. The derived models can then be used for predictive purposes, although always within the limits imposed by the precise assumptions made.3 In the case of international migration, a similar expression of the migration process is made difficult by appreciable government involvement in some of the basic elements of the process. In particular, immigration regulations transform intervening obstacles into barriers, at least after particular levels of movement have been reached. A certain measure of government control over internal migration is, of course, often exerted, but invariably the range of inducements and deterrents is more indirect and less stringent than with international migration. The aim of this paper is to illustrate and evaluate the factors influencing contemporary international migration through a consideration of recent trends in emigration from Malta, a country which has had the highest emigration rate in Europe since the Second World War. The importance of government influence, both at origin and destination, will be particularly evident in this case study. DEVELOPMENT AND PROMOTION OF MALTESE EMIGRATION Malta has always lacked the conventional natural resources to sustain appreciable population densities. It totally lacks indigenous sources of power and industrial raw material; the soils developed from its dominantly limestone parent material are thin and stony; and the mean annual rainfall of 52 cm falling on a restricted catchment area provides very limited fresh water resources. As early as the rule of the Knights of St John, 1630-I798, the dependence of the Maltese economy on external sources of wealth rather than on indigenous productive capacity had been established, and this was accentuated during the course of British colonial administration in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The decline of agriculture, cotton manufacturing and the

Trends in Italian Emigration

Trends in Italian Emigration

Trends in Italian Emigration

R ARELY DO PEOPLE emigrate from choice, least of all Italians, passionately in love as they are with everything in their country, from its landscape to its cuisine. Behind their departure from Italy has indeed been the threat of that slow decline, that death in life, which may make act of emigration, at a critical juncture, almost like a simple reflex action or obedience to an inexorable behest. 1 Attachment to one's native land is as natural as devotion to family, and only want, oppression, or economic ambition have modified to any extent logical consequences of this basic human fact. Such were motives behind great European migrations of early modern period which transformed America into Magna Europa, and simultaneously spurred religious minorities to find refuge in other European states, as French Huguenots did in Switzerland. In some respects current movement of European peoples resembles that of three hundred years ago: it is both transoceanic and intra-European; its mainsprings are same, except that persecutions are paramountly political; it is both individual and collective, free and assisted. In sponsorship of migration, though, an important change has taken place which reflects not only increasingly large role of state in affairs of its citizens, but also dawn of international co-operation for solution of demographic problems. Three centuries ago transoceanic outlets for surplus population were inconceivably vast, sparsely settled, and weakly defended. In contrast to humility of contemporary immigrants, first arrivals from Europe felt arrogantly superior to natives and ruthlessly ignored their most elemen. tary rights. The entrepreneurs of early overseas migrations were usually business groups or individuals, who, for economic, political, or humanitarian reasons, defrayed relatively high cost of transporting and transplanting settlers. But in nineteenth century, individualistic, unassisted migration, once an insignificant trickle, increased to a mighty stream, comparable in volume to sponsored and collective movements. It is ironic that Italy, now principal European emigration country,2 remained almost aloof from migratory currents of early modern period; how different would her present situation be had it been otherwise.