Tin Bronze Research Articles

Deposition of Base Ore and Alloy Elements in the Bronze Age Metal in the Trans-Urals

The paper studies the problems of the geochemical specialization of the Bronze Age metal items from the eastern flank of the Ural mining and metallurgical province produced at the end of the third millennium BC — the middle of the second millennium BC in the Abashevo, Sintashta, Koptyakov-Seimino and the Alakul centers. The metal geochemical markers determination was performed by means of a local quantitative chemical composition analysis of 101 solid samples with an electron X-ray microanalyzer. The selection consisted of a representative series of copper and bronze items corresponding to various stages of metallurgical conversion process from the classic archaeological sites of the Trans-Urals. Systematization of the analytical data on the chemistry of items from each metal production center made it possible to identify stable compositions of micro-impurities associated with the base ores and alloys. The Abashevo and the Sintashta culture metal demonstrated a stable correlation of excess arsenic and nickel concentrations, which was partly due to the use of the Trans-Urals ores with a high content of these elements, however, the most significant concentration of arsenic (from 2 to 5 %) was observed in the finished items rather than in refined copper ingots or semi-finished products, which may indicate intentional alloying. Tin alloys in the Sintashta culture were quite rare; they demonstrated the same chemistry as the Seimin-Turbino metallurgical traditions. Large-scale use of tin for refined copper alloying was observed only in the Koptyakov-Seimino and the Alakul series. The Alakul series contained some high-tin alloying compositions close to the ideal tin bronzes (18 % Sn). It is possible that the sources of tin for them were the Kazakhstan and the Central Asia deposits. The only impurity integrating the entire ancient metal series, according to microprobe analysis, was sulfur, due to the sulfide feed stock. Sulfur was deposited in blister from the high-copper (above 20 % Cu) sulfide-silica-carbonate mineral blends that met the Bronze Age metal production criteria. The sources of raw materials were associated with the secondary sulfides of the ophiolite deposits hypergenesis zones in the Trans-Urals.

Tin Bronze Reinforced with Cu9Al4 Particles: Mechanochemical Synthesis and Consolidation by Sintering under Pressure

Tin Bronze Reinforced with Cu9Al4 Particles: Mechanochemical Synthesis and Consolidation by Sintering under Pressure

Influence of aluminium oxide and graphene on the mechanical properties of Cu-Sn alloy composites

This study's primary goal was to examine how Copper and Tin additions affected the composition, structure, and mechanical characteristics of tin bronze (Cu-10%wt.Sn). Gr content and Al2O3 were both added at concentrations of 4 wt% each. For the mechanical testing and structural analyses, the alloy samples were manufactured using the permanent die casting process and then machined to the desired dimension. The study of mechanical properties included measuring impact strength, Brinell hardness, ultimate tensile strength, and % elongation. Intermetallic phases with fine and uniform distribution were found in the Al2O3 and Gr reinforced alloys, respectively. The percentage elongation, ultimate tensile strength, hardness, and impact strength of tin bronze were all found to be greatly increased by the addition of Al2O3 and Gr, according to the mechanical properties results. The sample having 4 wt% Gr content achieved the highest percentage elongation. Impact strength of 17% and 14 J was found highest in 4 wt% Al2O3, respectively, whereas the sample containing 4 wt% Al2O3 content achieved the best tensile strength and hardness values of 383.1 MPa, 296.2 MPa and 71 MPa respectively.

Metallurgical groups of non-ferrous metal products of the Baitovo Culture in the settlement of Marai 1

In the paper, the results of an analytical investigation of 28 artefacts made of non-ferrous metal originated from the materials of the settlement of Marai 1 of the Lower Ishim River basin of Tyumen Oblast are presented. Among the items were arrowheads, awls, decorations, plates, drops an ingot and a bracket attributed to the Bai-tovo Culture. The upper cultural horizon of the settlement marks the site of the Baitovo Culture of the beginning of the Early Iron Age, dated to the 4th–2nd centuries BCE. Based on the results of the spectral analysis carried out in the laboratory of nature sciences of the Institute of Archaeology, Russian Academy of Sciences, five metallurgical groups were identified. The artefacts belonging to the groups of pure copper (14 items) and dopped alloys (14 items) split evenly. Ten items are made of tin bronze. Two items belong to the tin-arsenic bronze group and one to the arsenic bronze group. The plate made of a copper-based alloy with the additions of tin, arsenic and silver represents an isolated item. A correlation was identified between the type of the artefact and the material it is made of. It was most prominent with the example of the arrowheads made of pure copper and the implements made of dopped alloys. There is a discernible continuation of the traditions of the epoch of bronze manifested in the use of both dopped alloys, as well as pure copper. For the local production, feedstock material was used, possibly supplied in ingots from the metallurgical centers of Central and Eastern Kazakhstan, which were rich in tin ore deposits. Pure copper, as well as the arrowheads (made of pure copper) were probably imported from the workshops of the Itkul Culture. The Urals metal could have also been distributed along the river system of the Tobol and Ishim onto quite far-off territories. From the 7th–5th centuries BCE, the Itkul metallurgical center was practically a monopoly supplier of copper and products for a range of the cultures (including the Baitovo Culture) of the mountain-forest and forest-steppe Trans-Urals and Western Siberia, and it was actively functioning until the 3rd century BCE. Its distinctive feature was the production of throwing weapons from pure oxidized copper. There-fore, the orientation of the historical-metallurgical relations on both western centers, as well as eastern, has been ascertained, which indicates extensive exchange-of-goods relations of the groups of the Baitovo population. However, the decrease of the supply of tin-ore alloys, as well as the decline of the Itkul metallurgical center to-wards the 3rd century BCE resulted in the search for new sources of feedstock material and expedited the transi-tion to the ironwork production.

Improving the Compression of Tin Bronze Bushes in Repair

Improving the Compression of Tin Bronze Bushes in Repair

Revisiting the addition of tin and lead in Chinese bronzes: A statistical perspective

During the Shang and Zhou Dynasties, China was distinctive for its use of leaded tin bronze, which diverged from bronzes in the Eurasian steppe. A reanalysis of published chemical data of late Shang and Western Zhou bronze vessels aimed to shed light on the purposeful addition of tin and lead. The findings demonstrate that the concentration of tin follows two separate patterns, with the predominant one stabilizing at about 15% and the secondary one spreading below 7%, reflecting diverse metallurgical practices. Furthermore, the linear variation between copper and lead (Cu-Pb) implies that lead was added to substitute for copper, probably owing to resource scarcity or copper shortages in the growing bronze industry of early states.

Metallography on a sickle fragment from the Drassburg/Burgenland hoard find

Abstract The Drassburg Bronze Age hoard find (approx. 25 kg) also comprises some sickles and sickle fragments. One of these sickle fragments was provided for metallographic examinations. A XRF analysis revealed 94.5 wt.% Cu, 4.31 wt.% Sn, 0.61 wt.% Pb, and 0.12 wt.% S in the alloy. It can therefore be attributed to tin bronzes. The material has a uniform dendritic microstructure. Higher concentrations of Sn, S, and Pb were measured in the interdendritic areas. This suggests a precipitation of the phases Pb and Cu2S from the residual melt. Klemm II etching also revealed the dendritic areas which exhibited different orientations. Deformations were observed in thin edge areas of the sickle fragments. They were introduced in the course of mechanical postprocessing of the bronze or during its use. The surface of the sickle exhibits a patina with a layered structure and a thickness of up to 500 μm. The Sn contents measured in the outer layers are somewhat higher than in the inner layers.

Tools Used in Tagar Rock Art: Findings of an Experimental Traceological Study

We describe the findings of traceological analysis and experiments with bronze and iron tools used by Tagar and Tes artists. The pecking traces these tools leave on the red Devonian sandstone were examined to assess which of them could have been used in rock art production. At the first stage, a preliminary analysis of Tagar petroglyphs was carried out, and metal tools and weapons from the Martyanov Museum of Local History in Minusinsk were examined. Morphologically suitable ones were selected, and experimental tools were made of stone, copper alloys, and low-carbon steel. Experiments were conducted and samples of pecking traces were produced. The final stage of the work consisted of comparing these samples with actual petroglyphs, and use-wear traces on the experimental tools with those on the actual tools. This approach made a direct comparison possible. Among the Tagar and Tes metal tools, those that had likely been used in rock art production were detected. The conclusion was made that no specialized tools designated for that purpose existed at that time in the Minusinsk Basin. Rather, multifunctional tools were used. These were made of tin bronze and low-carbon steel with thermal processing. Such tools first appeared in the region in the Early Iron Age.

Iron Age and Roman metallurgical activities at the Spasovine placer tin deposit, West Serbia

Spasovine, on the south flank of Mt. Cer in West Serbia, is one of the rare localities where Late Bronze Age placer tin mining activities have been documented. Archeological pedestrian surveys on this river terrace recovered ceramic fragments with metal-rich coatings, thought to be fragments of technical ceramics. The physical characteristics of the “petrol” gray-bodied ceramics are consistent with Roman Period ca. 200-300AD production, while black-bodied sherds are most consistent with Iron Age ceramics of western Serbia. SEM-EDS analysis of polished thin-sections and rough surfaces has shown that the fragments are enriched in various metallic residues (Zn, Sn, Cu, Pb in various combinations). Of the fourteen sherds studied, nine Roman samples contain Zn-rich coatings on the inner surfaces as well as deeper penetration of zinc enrichment into the ceramic interior, consistent with Zn cementation for brass. Three of these also contained younger addition of Sn, indicating that they were repurposed for bronze production at Spasovine. The prehistoric sherds contain tin along with Cu and Pb, consistent with the production of leaded tin bronze, which is not known from the area until the Iron Age (ca. 800-600BC). Thus, Spasovine was the site of itinerant mining and metallurgical activity, at least sporadically, over a period of 1700 years from the Late Bronze Age (14th century BCE) to the Roman Period (2nd-3rd century CE). This demonstrates that small deposits of placer tin could have had long-term impact on regional tin economies in ancient Europe.

Characteristics and Abrasive Wear Resistance of Plasma Alloyed Layers Based on Tin Bronze and Chromium Carbide

Characteristics and Abrasive Wear Resistance of Plasma Alloyed Layers Based on Tin Bronze and Chromium Carbide

In-Situ Fabrication, Microstructure and Mechanical Performance of Nano Iron-Rich Precipitate Reinforced Cu and Cu Alloys

In this paper, the research progress on the strengthening of copper and copper alloy is reviewed. The research shows that traditional strengthening methods are often accompanied by the decrease of plasticity, and there are limitations in size, cost, and other aspects in the process. The in-situ nanoparticle strengthening and plasticizing technology proposed in recent years can avoid the above problems. In this paper, the idea of in-situ nanoparticle strengthening is introduced to realize the simultaneous enhancement of strength and ductility of as-cast pure copper and tin bronze alloys. The effects of in-situ precipitation of iron-rich nanoparticles on the microstructure, and mechanical properties of different copper alloy systems, are systematically elucidated based on the former characterization and mechanical testing results. The results show that the in-situ introduction of iron-rich nanoparticles in the copper systems induces the formation of a nano precipitate-fine grain (NPFG) structure, which greatly improves the strength and ductility of copper alloys. The evolution of size, distribution, number density, morphology evolution in iron-rich nanoparticles, and the formation mechanism of NPFG structure, as well as the mechanism of NPFG strengthening and toughening, are summarized. An industrial-applicable casting process is proposed to prepare bulk NPFG structured copper alloys with complex shape, high strength, and high ductility.

Effect of Solution Temperature on Microstructure and Properties of Thixotropic Back-Extruded Tin-Bronze Shaft Sleeve.

To study the heat-treatment process of a semi-solid copper alloy, a thixotropic back-extruded tin–bronze shaft sleeve was heat-treated at 630 °C, 660 °C, 690 °C and 720 °C for 1 h, respectively. Microstructure changes and mechanical properties under different solution temperatures of shaft sleeve were characterized using a metallographic microscope (OM), scanning electron microscope (SEM), transmission electron microscope (TEM), hardness tester, and tensile tester. The results show that the tensile strength first increases and then decreases; the elongation decreases; and the Brinell hardness increases gradually with increasing solution temperature. When the solution treatment is at 690 °C, the tin–bronze shaft sleeve’s microstructure and comprehensive mechanical properties are the best. The shape factor is 0.75, the average grain size is 82.52 μm, the Brinell hardness is 122 HBW, the tensile strength is 437 MPa, and the elongation is 17.4%, which is 3.4 times higher than that before solution treatment.

Optimization of tin and aluminum content in tin bronze according to mechanical properties indicators

Problem statement. New compositions of foundry bronzes in which the best levels of properties inherent in both tin and aluminum bronzes are combined need to be developed. Purpose of research. Regularities between mechanical properties indicators and alloying components content in bronze of Cu−Sn−Al system with tin and aluminum content up to 6 % each are obtained. Methodology. Alloys for investigation was prepared by technical purity primary charge materials melting in induction crucible furnace using graphite crucible and charcoal as a coating material. Investigated alloys mechanical properties was calculated based on tests results of corresponding samples during their static elongation and impact bending at room temperature according to actual standards. Alloys chemical composition control was carried out on precision analyzer EXPERT 4L on samples cut from cross-shaped samples. Investigated multicomponent system response surfaces plotting was performed by H. Scheffe simplex-planning method with models of fourth and third degree. Results and discussion. According to Cu−Sn−Al alloys research results, functional dependences between mechanical properties vs. Sn and Al content from 1 to 6 % by weight of each are determined. This makes it possible to predict the level of mechanical properties according to chemical composition of such bronze during casting. Conclusions. It was found that within tin and aluminum content in investigated limits the best combination of mechanical properties has bronze BrO3A3 with content of Sn = (3…4) % and Al (3…4) %. Bronze BrO3A3 has higher (including plastic) mechanical properties values compared to the properties of tin bronzes, which are most often used in industry. This gives the reason to recommend such bronze for shaped castings and friction bearings manufacturing.

Two alloying technology from the Muyushan site (Anhui Province, China): evidence for tin bronze and arsenic bronze smelting in the lower Yangtze River ca. 1100BC ~ 500 BC

Two alloying technology from the Muyushan site (Anhui Province, China): evidence for tin bronze and arsenic bronze smelting in the lower Yangtze River ca. 1100BC ~ 500 BC

The Characterization of Running-In Coatings on the Surface of Tin Bronze by Electro-Spark Deposition

Antifriction materials, such as silver, copper, Babbitt B83, and graphene oxide (GO), were used to prepare running-in coatings on the surface of bronze QSn10-1 by electro-spark deposition (ESD). The analyses of mass transfer, roughness, thickness, morphology, composition, nanoindentation, and tribological properties of the coatings were investigated. The results showed that the running-in coatings were dense with refined grains that were uniformly distributed and in a metallurgical bond state with the tin bronze substrate. At optimum process parameters, the mass transfer was 244.2 mg, the surface roughness was 15.9 μm, and the thickness of the layers was 160 μm. The diffraction peaks clearly indicated the phases corresponding to α-Sn, SbSn, Cu6Sn5, and Cu, and a phase of Ag3Sn appeared. The modulus and the hardness of the running-in coatings were 24.9% and 14.2% of the substrate, and the deformation ratio of the coatings was 10.2% higher than that of the substrate. The friction coefficient of the running-in coatings was about 0.210 after the running-in stage, which was 64.8% of that of the substrate (0.324). The main wear mechanism of the running-in coatings under optimal process parameters is plastic deformation, scratching, and slight polishing. The running-in coating deformation under the action of high specific loads provides the automatic adjustment of parts and compensation for manufacturing errors.

Development of metallurgy of copper and copper alloys in China in the 2nd millennium BC

The first rare metal finds in China are dated to the Neolithic period, but most of them belong to its final phase. For this period, pure copper is known, very rare arsenic alloys, probably smelted from ore with arsenic admixtures. At the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC, in Gansu, the technology of smelting ore with the following alloying with arsenic, occasionally tin minerals were borrowed from an unknown source. This technology spread to the east, and is present in the Erlitou II layer. At the beginning of the Erlitou III phase (which corresponds to the beginning of the Shang dynasty), the tradition of the Seima-Turbino metallurgy and the technology of smelting copper sulfide ores and alloying with tin penetrated into the Yellow River basin from the north (through Shanxi) from southern Siberia. This tradition soon spread to southern China, as well as the western and northern peri-phery of Chinese civilization. The penetration of the Karasuk tradition of arsenic alloys is also observed in the west and north in the late Shang period, and the Shang and Karasuk metallurgical traditions coexisted there. A special situation formed in Xinjiang, where the Andronovo tradition of smelting sulfide ores and tin alloys pene-trated, but this penetration was limited to the west of the region. It did not affect the development of Chinese me-tallurgy. In general, in China, there is the same correspondence between the types of used ores and alloys as in the rest of Eurasia: native copper and malachite — pure copper, oxidized ores and secondary sulfides with gangue — arsenic copper, occasionally tin bronze, copper-iron sulfides — tin bronze. But in China, this sequence was driven by two technological impulses at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC (from an unclear source) and at the end of the second half of the 2nd millennium BC from southern Siberia. In addition, during the late Shang period, the interaction of the Shang and Karasuk traditions occurred in the north and west.

Tribological properties of copper-embedded self-lubricating bearing materials

PurposeThis study aims to investigate the effects of graphite-MoS2 composite solid lubricant on the tribological properties of copper-based bearing materials under dry conditions.Design/methodology/approachThe mixture of Graphite-MoS2 was inlaid in ZQSn6-6–3 tin bronze and ZQAl9-4 aluminum bronze matrix. These copper-embedded self-lubricating bearing materials were considered in friction pairs with 2Cr13 stainless steel, and their tribological properties were studied by using an MM200 wear test machine.FindingsThe results show that the friction coefficients and wear rates of copper-embedded self-lubricating bearing materials are lower than those of the ordinary copper-based bearing materials. The wear performance of the tin bronze inlaid self-lubricating bearing material is better than that of the aluminum bronze inlaid self-lubricating bearing material. The wear mechanism of the tin bronze bearing material is mainly adhesive wear, and that of the aluminum bronze bearing material is mainly grinding wear, oxidation wear and adhesive wear. The copper-embedded self-lubricating bearing materials had no obvious abrasion, whereas the aluminum bronze inlaid self-lubricating bearing material exhibited deep furrows and obvious abrasion under high loads.Originality/valueThese results are helpful for the application of copper-embedded self-lubricating bearing materials.

Study on Friction and Wear Properties of New Self-Lubricating Bearing Materials

In this paper, friction and wear tests were carried out: 45# steel (carbon steel) was rubbed with aluminum bronze, aluminum bronze-based inlaid solid self-lubricating bearing (ISSLB) material, tin bronze, and tin bronze-based ISSLB material under different loads. The friction and wear properties (friction coefficient, wear amount and friction temperature) of the above four materials were studied. The friction and wear properties of the new self-lubricating bearing material and the traditional copper alloy under the same load were compared. The friction mechanism of each material in the friction process was discussed. The effect and mechanism of C-MoS2 composite solid lubricant on friction and wear properties were analyzed. Under the experimental loads of 100 to 500 N, the average friction coefficients of aluminum bronze-based ISSLB material were maintained in the range of 0.18~0.14, while the average friction coefficients of tin bronze-based ISSLB material were maintained between 0.26~0.20, which is much lower than those of copper alloy. The wear amounts of tin bronze-based ISSLB material were always in the range of 14.7~34.4 mg, which were much less than those of aluminum bronze-based ISSLB materials and copper alloy. The results show that the copper-based ISSLB materials possess excellent wear resistance, and the friction and wear properties of tin bronze-based ISSLB material are better than that of aluminum bronze-based ISSLB material. Therefore, if the copper-based ISSLB materials are applied to self-lubricating bearings, the friction and wear resistance of bearings will be greatly improved and the service life of bearings prolonged.

Бронзолитейное производство вычегодских пермян (по материалам нижневычегодского Чежтыягского могильника)

The paper deals with the burials of the excavation No. 7 of the Lower-Vychegda Chezhtyyag burial ground of the Vym culture of the Vychegda Perm, in which objects indicating the occupation of the population by bronze casting were found. The analytical studies were based on using optical and scanning electron microscopes. Based on the analysis of the grave goods, the belonging of these burials to women is substantiated. The conducted geochemical analysis of scrap metal found in the burials is represented by tin bronzes with lead separations, metallurgical copper, tin and silver-copper alloy. Metallurgical copper, lead-copper, zinc bronze, and tin bronze were used to manufacture adornments and household items. Convincing evidence of local bronze casting was obtained. Tin bronzes, lead and copper were produced mainly locally. Among the non-ferrous metal products, both products of local craftsmen and imported ones are presented. The similarity of the composition of non-ferrous metal and scrap metal products confirms the assumption that the burials in question belong to female casters, whose main field of activity was bronze casting.

Copper at ancient Kerma: A diachronic investigation of alloys and raw materials

This paper describes the first comprehensive study of metal artefacts found at ancient Kerma, Sudan. Covering a period of several millennia, it investigates the development of copper alloy recipes as well as metal provenance through the trace element and lead isotope ratio analysis of forty-eight sampled objects. These include grave goods as well as production waste related to large-scale bronze casting performed at Kerma. This study is part of a wider evaluation of copper alloy production at Kerma through targeted workshop excavation, materials analysis, and experimental archaeology. The analytical results illustrate the gradual and flexible transition from arsenical copper to tin bronze alloys over time, in a pattern similarly observed in ancient Egypt. Trace element distributions and lead isotope ratios for copper used at Kerma are comparable to those of contemporary Egyptian artefacts too. These findings indicate the exploitation of ores similar to those mined at the Sinai Peninsula, although copper ore deposits in Nubia remain poorly characterized and thus difficult to identify as source candidates. Nonetheless, it can be suggested that metal provisioning networks along the Nile Valley likely overlapped to varying degrees over time. These results provide an important contribution to the mapping of technological exchanges that took place between ancient Egypt and Nubia.