Revisiting the addition of tin and lead in Chinese bronzes: A statistical perspective

Abstract

During the Shang and Zhou Dynasties, China was distinctive for its use of leaded tin bronze, which diverged from bronzes in the Eurasian steppe. A reanalysis of published chemical data of late Shang and Western Zhou bronze vessels aimed to shed light on the purposeful addition of tin and lead. The findings demonstrate that the concentration of tin follows two separate patterns, with the predominant one stabilizing at about 15% and the secondary one spreading below 7%, reflecting diverse metallurgical practices. Furthermore, the linear variation between copper and lead (Cu-Pb) implies that lead was added to substitute for copper, probably owing to resource scarcity or copper shortages in the growing bronze industry of early states.