Tilia Cordata Mill Research Articles

Field forest strips of the Middle Dnipro Area Forest- Steppe as raw areas for beekeeping

Studying the supply of beekeeping industry with a spectrum of nectar- and pollen-bearing plants is quite important for increasing the quantitative saturation of bee colonies in certain areas. To do this, it is necessary to analyze the entire phytodiversity of artificially created plantations, spontaneous and natural forest communities, which are widespread on the territory of the Middle Dnipro Area Forest-Steppe. We previously investigated the participation of these raw plants from the list of tree and shrub species of forest plantations of this territory, and in this work we analyzed the full participation of available plant species in the groupings of field protection forest strips. Analysis of the spreading of nectar-bearing and pollen-bearing species made it possible to identify 91 species of plants that have a diverse representation in these plant communities. The most valuable raw material species are Tilia cordata Mill. and Robinia pseudoacacia L., which prevail in some of the studied groups and are promising for the main productive honey collection. Also, in these plantations there are some species with a fairly high value of raw materials, but they mostly have a small spreading. In ad- dition, a significant widespread group of plants was noted, but they do not belong to good honey plants. The investigated plantations in the combination of tree, shrub and herbaceous plant species present in them can also be actively used by bees as a source of supporting food practically throughout the entire period of their flight activity. Especially important is the use of field-protective forest strips as raw land, due to their frequent finding near settlements where apiaries are usually located, as well as the possible use of protective forest plantations for the location of apiaries during migrations. A partial correction of the values of nectar and pollen activity of individual species and the total raw value of some of these species was also performed

Assessment of Total Mineral Content in Raw Materials of Ten Medicinal Plants from Roadside Biotopes (Voronezh Region)

Abstract—The total mineral content in medicinal plants from the roadside and railside coenoses of the Voronezh region was studied. The pharmacopoeial plant raw materials of 10 species were evaluated: roots of Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg and Arctium lappa L.; herb of Polygonum aviculare L., Artemisia absinthium L., Leonurus quinquelobatus Gilib., and Achillea millefolium L.; leaves of Urtica dioica L. and Plantago major L.; flowers of Tanacetum vulgare L. and Tilia cordata Mill. For collecting medicinal plant raw materials, the minimum allowable distances from different types of roads and railways were determined based on the total ash content indicator. For different natural zones, the minimum allowable distance from the heavy traffic motorways is: forest zone – 210 m, forest–steppe zone – 240 m, and steppe zone (devoid of tree and shrub vegetation) – 380 m. For secondary low-speed roads and railways, the minimum recommended distance is 80 m.

Urban Green System Planning Insights for a Spatialized Balance between PM10 Dust Retention Capacity of Trees and Urban Vehicular PM10 Emissions

Reducing air pollution is a crucial challenge in urban areas. In this regard, urban green infrastructures could play a pivotal role. In the literature, scholars analyzed both the ability of species-specific and layout-specific green infrastructures to reduce air pollution and the best location sites of new green infrastructures to increase the provision of overall ecosystem services. There is a lack of studies helping green urban planners and designers choose where and which green infrastructure to implement based on vegetation species-specific performance and differentiated demand for the ecosystem services of city areas. This paper uses tree cadastre data from a medium-sized city in central Italy (Perugia) and the traffic open-layers of Gmaps to develop a spatial analysis of the urban trees’ performance in PM10 dust retention, and the PM10 produced by vehicular emissions, respectively. The method generates a spatialized balance between demand (air-polluted sites by traffic) and supply (PM10 dust retention by trees) to support local decisions about the best locations for new green infrastructures and the choice between species. The paper analyzed 6710 urban trees in an area of 42.62 km2 with a linear road density of 15 km/km2. Platanus hybrida Mill. ex Münchh, Celtis australis L., Ulmus carpinifolia L., Pinus pinaster Aiton, Quercus ilex L., Quercus robur L., and Tilia cordata Mill. are the resulting optimal species to reduce PM10, with median values of 219.62, 181.47, 166.67, 154.66, 143.90, 118.61, and 118.04 g tree−1 yr−1, respectively. The paper is a first contribution in developing GIS-based tools that vary the recommended location sites and species for new green infrastructures based on the demanded ecosystem service. Urban planners are called to dynamically use and integrate numerous tools, such as the one developed here, to seek complex solutions capable of increasing the sustainability of urban systems.

Pruning revisited – effect of pruning season on wood discoloration and occlusion in four temperate broadleaved tree species

Abstract Pruning is a necessary part of tree management both in silvicultural systems and in urban forestry. For the wood industry’s production of high-quality timber, as well as for the urban forest’s risk reduction and ecosystem services enhancements, it is essential that the pruning is accurately implemented. This study aimed to determine the effect of pruning season on discoloration amount and occlusion rate in four broadleaved tree species. In 2014, 84 trees were pruned in January, May and September. Six years later, the 252 samples from the three pruning points per tree were collected and analysed. ‘Common oak (Quercus robur L.)’ and ‘small-leaved lime (Tilia cordata Mill.)’ showed least discoloration when pruned in January, ‘wild cherry (Prunus avium L.)’ showed least discoloration when pruned in September and ‘Norway maple (Acer platanoides L.)’ did not show any significant differences. All species occluded fastest when pruned in January, but at different rates. Common oak occluded 84 per cent of the samples, Norway maple 42 per cent, small-leaved lime 32 per cent and wild cherry 13 per cent. In summary, the pruning month affected discoloration amounts and occlusion rates of the tested tree species in varied ways. Our research suggests an important knowledge gap regarding optimal species-specific pruning times and underlying reasons for different reactions to pruning.

Evaluation of the growth, adaption, and ecosystem services of two potentially-introduced urban tree species in Guangzhou under drought stress

Under rapid urbanization and agglomeration of population, cities are facing various environmental challenges. As urban forests play a crucial role in mitigating native environmental problems and providing ecosystem services, cities might enhance their urban forest construction through multiple approaches, of which the introduction of exotic tree species could be an effective way. Under the background of constructing a high-quality forest city, Guangzhou was considering introducing a series of exotic tree species to improve the local urban greening, among which Tilia cordata Mill. and Tilia tomentosa Moench became the potential objects. As Guangzhou was reported to experience higher temperatures with less precipitation and face drought events with increasing frequency and intensity, whether the two tree species could survive in the dry environment required to be investigated profoundly. Thus, we launched a drought-simulation experiment and measured their above- and below-ground growth in 2020. In addition, their ecosystem services were also simulated and evaluated for their future adaption. Furthermore, a congeneric native tree species Tilia miqueliana Maxim was also measured in the same experiment as a comparison. Our results showed that Tilia miqueliana exhibited moderate patterns of growth and advantages in evapotranspiration and cooling. Besides, its investment in root development at horizontal level could account for its special strategy against drought stress. Tilia tomentosa’s vigorous root growth could be the most positive behavior of coping with water deficit, which explained its maintenance of carbon fixation and implied a well adaption. Tilia cordata showed a complete decrease in above- and below-ground growth, especially for its fine root biomass. In addition, its ecosystem services were significantly reduced, reflecting a comprehensive failure when it faced a long-term scarcity of water. Therefore, it was necessary to supply sufficient water and under-ground space for their living in Guangzhou, especially for Tilia cordata. In the future, long-time observation of their growth under different stresses can be practical approaches to amplify their multiple ecosystem services.

RESEARCH OF THE STATE OF WOODY AND BRUSHWOOD PLANTS UNDER ANTHROPOGENIC STRESS CONDITIONS

Objective. The study of anthropogenic impact on environmental components, primarily on woody and shrub plants, which are the main medium-forming element in natural and artificial ecosystems, is relevant. The subject of this study was the ecological and biological state of plants under conditions of technogenic stress.
 Materials and methods. The article presents the results of a study of the life state of woody plants. For this, test plots were laid on the territory of sanitary protection zones of industrial enterprises and in the plantings of main plantings. The quantitative content of tannins and polyphenol oxidase in plant leaves during the active growing season was determined by spectrophotometry and titrimetric analysis.
 Results. Vitality decreases in the following order: Betula pendula Roth.> Sorbus aucuparia L.> Rosa majalis Herrn.> Acer negundo L.> Tilia cordata Mill. In plantations of technogenic territories, an increase in damage to the leaf blade is noted, a greater number of dry branches appear in the crown of a tree, compared to the control zone. Thus, in the study area, the lowest life state scores were recorded in Tilia cordata Mill., And the highest vital state scores were recorded in silver birch. In mountain ash, wild rose and American maple, the vital state is average. The increase in the activity of polyphenol oxidase was observed in plantations of technogenic territories, which is a consequence of intensive anthropogenic load on woody plants. Increased activity of polyphenol oxidase helps to decrease the content of tannins in plant leaves. Betula pendula Roth. Sorbus aucuparia L. in the SPZ of industrial enterprises in July, the accumulation of tannins is more intense than in the control plantations.
 Conclusion. Betula pendula Roth., Sorbus aucuparia L. in the SPZ of industrial enterprises in July, the accumulation of tannins is more intense than in the control plantations. Spectrophotometric determination of activity helps to understand the reasons why the content of tannins increases or decreases. This fact indicates the participation of tannins in the complex of adaptive reactions of plants, which are associated with protection from aerogenic pollutants. As a result of the study, the most resistant to anthropogenic stress plant species were identified: silver birch, cinnamon rose, and rowan tree.

Temperature and Precipitation Affect the Radial Growth of Berlin Poplar and Small-leaved Linden Trees in Saint Petersburg

The effect of temperature and precipitation on the change in the radial growth of wood of Berlin poplar (Populus × berolinensis Dipp.) and small-leaved linden (Tilia cordata Mill.) in Saint Petersburg was studied. Cores were taken from old trees in the Forestry Technical University park, in the Palevsky square, in the city of Pushkin (poplar trees) and in the Moscow Victory Park (linden trees). To eliminate the influence of the samples’ age factor on the change in its growth rings’ width, the generally accepted detrending methods were used; the calculations were carried out in the Arstan software. Precipitation and temperature fluctuations during the winter period do not significantly affect the growth of poplar and linden in Saint Petersburg. Summer precipitation has a positive, but overall not a decisive effect, in some cases, the radial growth increases with increasing rainfall. Temperature has no significant effect on standardised (age-adjusted) growth rates. Non-standardised average values of growth under the increasing temperature conditions in July–September significantly decrease. The effects of temperature and precipitation appear to be indirect, exacerbating or offsetting the effects of other factors, especially the air pollution. The impact of pollutants increases with the increase in temperatures at the end of the growing season, because they accumulate on the leaves’ surface. Precipitation washes away pollutants, reducing the intensity of their impact. Growth decline in poplar trees in the second half of the 1990s, in the absence of such an occurrence in linden, can be explained by the consequences of a prolonged outbreak of the poplar moth (Phyllonorycter populifoliella) mass reproduction in 1991–1999. The above assumptions require additional research; in particular, determining the level of leaf contamination during the growing season and taking into account the impact of other factors.

Особенности транслокации кадмия в насаждениях липы мелколистной (Tilia cordata Mill.) в условиях загрязнения окружающей среды (стерлитамакский промышленный центр)

The purpose of the research is to assess the vital state of woody plants and study the features of the accumulation and distribution of cadmium (Cd) in the underground and aboveground organs of the small-leaved linden (Tilia cordata Mill.) under conditions of pollution of the Sterlitamak industrial center and in the conditional control zone. It was established that in the impact zone of the Sterlitamak industrial center the relative vitality of small-leaved linden trees is «weakened» (Ln=72.75%), and in the conditional control zone – «healthy» (Ln=88.25%). In the contaminated zone in the upper soil layer of 0‑10 cm, the saturation with absorbing linden roots was 32.42 ± 1.52 g/m2, at a depth of 10‑20 cm – 52.34 ± 2.50 g/m2, and at a depth of 20‑30 cm – 31.30 ± 3.21 g/m2. In the conditional control zone, a similar pattern is noted: in the upper soil layer of 0‑10 cm, the saturation with absorbing roots was 55.53 ± 2.52 g/m2, at a depth of 10‑20 cm – 69.34 ± 4.62 g/m2. Technogenic Cd accumulates in the upper soil layers of 0‑10 (20) cm, which leads to a decrease in the proportion of absorbing roots. The coefficients of biological absorption (0.71) and accumulation (1.30) of Cd in linden roots under conditions of environmental pollution were calculated. It was shown that according to the content of Cd in the organs of linden, the following series is formed (in descending order): roots>branches>leaves. A decrease in Cd entry into the above-ground organs of linden was revealed, which indicates that the root system performs a barrier function in relation to pollutants. Linden plantations successfully grow in conditions of industrial pollution and generally perform environmental stabilizing functions.

Three methods testing the asymmetry of the leaf blades of the small-leaved lime

Three methods were used to determine the fluctuating asymmetry (FA) of leaf blades and the developmental stability of smallleaved linden (Tilia cordata Mill): the normalizing difference method, the sample normalization method, and the two-factor analysis method (FA10). The collection of leaf blades took place along the latitudinal zonality gradient from north to south in five cities from Murmansk (68°58′ N) to Mozhaisk (55°30′ N), including the cities of Apatity, Petrozavodsk and Saint Petersburg. In all analyses, the highest FA value was obtained in the population of Petrozavodsk, the lowest in the population of Mozhaisk. In other cities, the FA indices differed, except for the populations in Apatity and Petrozavodsk with FA10 indices, respectively, 0.02 (p=0.02) and 0.03 (p=0.01). In the northernmost population (Murmansk), no decrease in developmental stability was noted. The stability of the development of Tilia cordata was more strongly influenced by the climatic and geographical conditions of the area and the technogenic state of the environment than by the geographic latitude. The authors note that a non-parametric sample distribution is advisable to use the two-factor analysis of variance, since normality difference and normalization lead to a non-equivalent deviation of the results. Bonferroni’s adjustments for measurement error were convenient for accurately distributing FA values at significance level.

The findings of the Trachys minutus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Coleoptera: Buprestidae) in Voronezh

Tiny leaf-mining jewel beetle Trachys minutus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Coleoptera: Buprestidae: Trachysini), being a species with a wide food specialization and distributed throughout the Palearctic, causes periodic outbreaks in linden plantations. Larvae of tiny leaf-mining jewel beetle mine leaves and feed on their tissues, adults feed on leaves in the crown of trees. Up-to-date information obtained during the monitoring of the T. minutus number from the end of May to the beginning of September 2022 on the territory of the forest park site of the All-Russian Research Institute of Forest Genetics, Breeding and Biotechnology and in squares and street plantings of the Soviet and Central districts of Voronezh is provided. Larvae mine leaves of white willow (Salix alba Crawford, 1914), goat willow (S. caprea Linnaeus, 1753), small-leaved linden (Tilia cordata Miller, 1768), Midland hawthorn (Crataegus laevigata (Poiret) de Candolle (1825)) and common hawthorn (C. monogyna Jacquin, 1775) on the territory of Voronezh. The species is rare in the center, while on the northern city outskirts (on the territory of the forest park site) up to 10% of linden leaves were affected by mines of T. minutus. White willow, goat willow, small-leaved linden, large-leaved linden (T. platiphyllos Scopoli, 1772), Norway maple (Acer platanoides Linnaeus, 1753), European ash (Fraxinus excelsior Linnaeus, 1753) and hawthorn species were noted as fodder plants in the city.

Features of creating fast-growing and multifunctional field-protecting forest strips in the Forest-Steppe zone of Ukraine

To ensure the maximum protection of agricultural crops from climatic factors unfavorable for their growth and development, it is necessary to create an optimal number of field protection forest strips. In particular, for the Forest-Steppe zone of Ukraine, less than half of the optimal needs are available, which indicates an urgent need for their additional creation. The expediency of creating fast-growing and multifunctional field forest strips is substantiated, and the productivity of new bioenergy crops during their formation for use in beekeeping and as biofuel is determined. For this purpose, a model of the artificial formation of a forest strip with its possible further exploitation is proposed. The most optimal one is to develop the concept of creating field forest strips with the use of multifunctional tree species, which, in addition to the function of wind, water and dust retention, will also perform other economic tasks. In particular, along with their intended purpose, they can be used as raw materials for biofuel production and as early honey plants. For the accelerated creation of field protection forest strips, it is advisable to use mixed 6–8- row plantings, where the middle 2–3 rows are planted with the involvement of tree species, including the use of species valuable as raw materials for beekeeping. These forest strips are complemented on both sides by planted strips of energy crops, which are important for beekeeping and are a valuable resource for obtaining fuel raw materials. For this purpose, it is advisable to plant 10–12 thousand pieces on one hectare poplar cuttings (Populus sp.), 1250 pieces of paulownia plants (Paulownia tomentosa Steud.) with a row width of 2×4 m and 17–18 thousand pieces cuttings of energy willow (Salix viminalis L.). It is also possible to replace part of the poplar cuttings with cuttings of common robinia (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) and linden (Tilia cordata Mill.). The creation of such plantations near settlements will contribute to their significant use of raw materials and will be quite effective in carrying out their main function of ecological stabilization of agro-landscapes.

A Combined Methods of Senile Trees Inventory in Sustainable Urban Greenery Management on the Example of the City of Sandomierz (Poland)

The sustainable management of urban greenery consists, among others, of the inventory, valuation, and protection of trees of monumental size. This article presents the results of the inspection of 13 large trees growing in the city of Sandomierz, located in south-eastern Poland. The examined specimens belong to five species: Norway maple (Acer platanoides L.), common ash (Fraxinus excelsior L.), white poplar (Populus alba L.), English oak (Quercus robur L.), and small-leaved lime (Tilia cordata Mill.). The health condition of the trees was assessed using acoustic and electrical tomography, as well as chlorophyll fluorescence tests. Diagnostics employing sound waves and electrical resistivity were crucial in assessing tree health. The data based on chlorophyll fluorescence confirmed the results obtained during tomographic examinations. It was an innovative combination of three non-invasive methods of examining the health condition of trees and their valuation. Economic valuation allows us to reduce to common denominator issues that are often difficult to decide due to different perspectives—expressing the economic value of trees. Calculating the value of trees allowed us to show the city’s inhabitants the value of trees that are of monumental size. Thanks to the cooperation of scientists with the city authorities, an economic plan for trees of monumental size was created, distinguished by an individualized and holistic approach to each specimen covered by the study. The database prepared has a chance to become an effective management instrument used by environmental protection authorities and a source of knowledge and education for the city’s inhabitants.

Модели для оценки биомассы и объема коры деревьев липы мелколистной (Tilia cordata Mill.)

The research is aimed at analyzing variability and developing mathematical models for estimating bark biomass and volume, volume of trunk with bark, and bark proportion of small-leaved linden (Tilia cordata Mill.) trees growing in natural coppice and artificial stands. The models are based on data from 107 and 95 destructively sampled trees in natural coppice and artificial stands, respectively. There were 10 sampling areas per stand type, representing different growth stages. The model trees were sawn into 2-meter sections, the volumes of which with and without bark were calculated using the Huber formula. The total volume of the tree trunk with and without bark is obtained by summing the volumes of all sections and the conical volume of the tree top. The bark volume was the difference between these two parameters. The bark biomass was determined by direct weighing, followed by conversion to absolutely dry mass. The correlations between the dendrometric parameters and the selected tree characteristics were estimated. The effectiveness of 3 regression models using the diameter at breast height (dbh = 1.3 m) and the tree height (h) as independent variables was studied in a comparative aspect. The bark biomass and volume, and the volume of trunk with bark are strongly influenced by these values. This correlation is very weak for the bark volume proportion in natural coppice stands, and insignificant in artificial stands. The bark volume proportion for each tree was calculated as the ratio of the difference between the volume of trunk with and without bark and the volume of trunk with bark. The equation that showed the best statistical characteristics in terms of consistency was chosen in order to predict the bark biomass and volume, the volume of trunks with bark of small-leaved linden trees. These models were estimated using the weighted least squares method taking into account the inherent errors and heteroscedasticity, by assigning each model its weight function separately for natural coppice and artificial stands that differ significantly from each other in morphometric features.

The FraDiv experiment: Biodiversity-ecosystem functioning research meets reforestation practice

European ash-rich forest ecosystems are transforming rapidly under the influence of ash dieback, putting many associated species at risk. Forest managers face the urgent challenge to deal with the loss of European ash (Fraxinus excelsior L.) as a key tree species to maintain species richness and ecosystem functioning. The project FraDivexp, located in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany, aims at counteracting detrimental effects of progressive ash decline by testing alternative tree species in a Biodiversity-Ecosystem Functioning (BEF) experiment along a hydrological gradient. Here, we provide insight into how a BEF-approach can be combined with silvicultural management practice to meet the needs for both ecological research and reforestation. At the same time, we present first data on the survival of the planted saplings.In winter 2019/2020, FraDivexp was established with autochthonous tree species considered potential substitutes for the functioning of ash. At 12 sites, plantations including Fraxinus excelsior, Acer platanoides L., Carpinus betulus L., Tilia cordata Mill. and Ulmus laevis Pall. were planted directly underneath the remains of collapsing forest canopies involving all monocultures, and all combinations of 2-, 4- and 5-species mixtures. One year after planting of 25,200 trees, total mortality was at 5% with U. laevis showing lowest mortality while establishment of A.platanoides was least successful. In this early phase of FraDivexp tree mortality was species-specific and driven by initial individual tree size, pH-values in the topsoil and canopy openness, while there was no effect associated with tree diversity. Analysis of further biotic factors showed high mortality of A.platanoides in areas with a high cover of Rubus spp. in the herb layer, indicating species-specific susceptibility to different site conditions. Overall, low mortality (compared to other BEF experiments on arable land) suggests an advantage of establishing a BEF experiment within an existing forest matrix. Simultaneously, this study shows that differences in environmental context dependency among species need to be considered more explicitly, when recommending management strategies. To ensure successful establishment of reforestations with substitute tree species is the first step to efficiently counteract the massive loss of ash trees with the aim of maintaining biodiversity and ecosystem functioning.

Dynamic Changes on Floral Aroma Composition of the Three Species from Tilia at Different Flowering Stages

The floral aroma, sometimes known as an incorporeal gift of flowers, is one of the primary ornamental features of plants. Flowers of genus Tilia are fragrant and have great value for development and utilization. In this study, for the first time, headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) combined with chemometrics were used to analyze the dynamic variations of scent components of the three species from Tilia at different flowering stages. A total of 70 volatile components were detected, 43 aroma compounds were identified. The UpSet diagram displayed great variations in the amount of aroma components at various flowering stages for each species. Partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) indicated the proximity of aroma composition characteristics and the significant components that can distinguish the three species from one another. Variable importance projection values (VIP) along with the Kruskal-Wallis non-parametric analysis were performed to identify 14 crucial aroma components, such as α-Farnesene, D-Limonene, Germacrene D, Linalool, etc. In the end, we discovered that, in sharp contrast to Tilia miqueliana Maxim., Tilia cordata Mill. may have a closely related phylogenetic relationship with Tilia tomentosa Moench. by evaluating the aroma similarity rates.

INVASIVE CYCLE AND ASSESSMENT OF THE DEPTH OF INVASION OF REPRESENTATIVES OF DENDROFLORA OF UKRAINE IN THE SOME ECOSYSTEMS BY EUROPEAN MISTLETOE (VÍSCUM ÁLBUM L.)

Research is related to the biology and ecology of white mistletoe (Víscum álbum L.), with an analysis of its impact on the dendroflora of natural and artificial ecosystems. The sequence of stages of the invasive cycle of mistletoe, starting from the stage of infection, the intensity of the invasion (the degree of its spread in the crown), the suppression of host trees, their death and biodegradation, as well as the mechanism of these processes. These stages have different durations in different species. A comparison of the full cycle of mistletoe infection for those species that are most often infected in Polissya, Eastern Podillya and in the coastal areas of the right bank of the Dnieper. The most sensitive species to the invasion were the following: Populus nigra L., Populus balsamifera L., Tilia cordata Mill, Salix babylonica L., Salix fragilis L., Juglans nigra L. and Juglans cinerea L., Sorbus aucuparia L., Betula pendula Roth , Acer saccharum Marshall, Acer saccharinum L., Fraxinus excelsior L. The intensity of the invasion by mistletoe also takes into account the degree of suppression aforementioned and some other species, have become particularly threatening today, so it requires finding ways to solve this biological and environmental problem. However, a number of tree species can resist to the spreading of mistletoe even under invasion due to mechanisms that ensure their high resistance, among them Populus pyramidalis Rozier, hybrids of poplars, Quércus rúbra L, some others. A number of species are able to resist to mistletoe spreading even under their conditions of infection due to the presence inner mechanisms that ensure their relatively high resistance to this parasite, among them: Populus pyramidalis Rozier, its hybrids, Quércus rúbra L., Prunus avium L., Prunus cerasifera Ehrh. A significant number of dendroflora species are outside of the influence of mistletoe. It is indicates on existing specific biological barriers which block following spreading and adaptation among Víscum album L. populations. The concept of resistance and sensitivity to mistletoe of representatives of dendroflora is offered. The algorithm for determining the tention of invasion by Víscum album, the processes of suppression, death and subsequent biodegradation of affected trees is optimized. The classification of the nature of the interaction of mistletoe and host trees is carried out. Strong invasion of mistletoe white require mutuals special efforts of scientists and state for restriction its spreading.

Dynamics of foliar concentrations of photosynthetic pigments in woody and herbaceous plant species in the territory of an industrial city

Background. Plants growing in urban ecosystems are negatively affected by anthropogenic activities associated with environmental pollution. Plant photosynthesis is one of the processes that are particularly affected by environmental conditions, including the presence of pollutants in the atmosphere and soil. However, the dynamics of photosynthetic pigments, namely chlorophylls (Chl) and carotenoids, in plant species growing in urban ecosystems have not been sufficiently studied. The aim of this study was to analyze the effect of technogenic load on the content of pigments of photosynthesis in the cells of woody and herbaceous plants common in industrial cities, using the example of the urban ecosystem of Lviv located in the western part of Ukraine. Materials and Methods. The study was carried out at four experimental sites within the city of Lviv with different levels and types of technogenic load. Site S1 selected in the central part of the Stryiskyi park was considered as a control one. Site S2 was chosen in an area with a combined technogenic load, including road and rail traffic, and the operation of the combined heat and power plant-1 (CHPP-1). Sites S3 and S4 were subjected mainly to vehicular traffic. Leaves of six plant species were collected at sites S1–S4, including woody plants (Acer platanoides L., Aesculus hippocastanum L. and Tilia cordata Mill.) and herbaceous plants (Plantago major L., Taraxacum officinale F.H.Wigg. and Urtica dioica L). The concentration of Chl a, Chl b, the total Chl content and the concentration of carotenoids were determined spectrophotometrically. Results. The analyzed plant species growing at site S1 had the highest levels of total Chl and carotenoids compared to other sampling sites. In plant leaves collected at sites S2–S4, the total Chl content was 1.5–3.2 times lower than in the leaves collected at the site S1. The ratio of Chl a and Chl b concentrations was generally lower in plants growing at sites S2–S4 compared to plants from site S1. The concentration of carotenoids in the leaves of woody plants collected from sites S2 and S4 was 1.4–2.4 times lower compared with site S1, while in the leaves of herbaceous plants sampled at sites S2–S4, the concentration of carotenoids was 1.5–2.6 times lower than at site S1. Conclusions. The results of the study suggest that the concentration of both chlorophyll and carotenoids in the leaves of the analyzed herbaceous and woody plant species growing in the territory of an industrial city is influenced by anthropogenic impact associated with atmospheric pollution in the areas of plant growth. These indices are lower in plants growing in areas with technogenic load compared with plants growing in the green zone of the city. At the same time, the concentration of chlorophyll in the leaves of the analyzed plant species growing under urban conditions was found to be more sensitive to anthropogenic load compared to the foliar concentration of carotenoids. Therefore, the concentration of chlorophyll in plant species growing in cities can be one of the biomarkers for assessing the level of pollution caused by anthropogenic load in urban ecosystems.

Pomniki przyrody i drzewa pomnikowe wybranych gmin powiatu wejherowskiego (województwo pomorskie)

The paper presents results of a survey of natural monuments and monumental trees in the Wejherowo County, Poland. During the field research it was found that there are 106 monuments of nature in the community of Gniewino, Linia, Luzino and Łęczyce. Under monument protection are as follows: 1 climber, 69 individual trees, 3 alleys, 18 groups of trees and 15 erratic boulders. The largest number of monuments of nature is located in the Łęczyce community (51 natural monuments), while the smallest monuments number is located in the area of the Linia community (3 monuments). In total, there are 65 monuments of nature in the State Forests, which constitutes as much as 61% of the total number in the studied area. Along the roads, there are 22 monuments in cemeteries and 19 on private land. Manor parks are rich in monuments of nature. There are a total of 23 monuments in them. All natural monuments should be labeled with the word “NATURE MONUMENT”, while only 72 of them are marked as such. During the research work, 7 monument trees were selected as follows: 4 specimens of the common beech Fagus sylvatica L., 2 specimens of Coast Douglas-fir Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco and 1 specimen of small-leaved lime Tilia cordata Mill. Due to its impressive size and standing out among other trees of the same genus or species, they should be taken under monument protection.

Effect of Salt Treatment on the Growth, Water Status, and Gas Exchange of Pyrus pyraster L. (Burgsd.) and Tilia cordata Mill. Seedlings

Two-year-old seedlings of T. cordata and P. pyraster were exposed to salinity for 50 days, whereby each plant was subject to regular applications of a substrate solution containing 100 mM NaCl, amounting to a cumulative volume of 365 mL per plant. The adaptive reactions of the tree species in coping with salt stress were studied. The measured parameters were the growth and distribution of mass to organs, root to shoot mass ratio (R:S), content of assimilation pigments in the leaves, gas exchange parameters (gs, E, An), and water use efficiency (WUE). The relative increase in biomass was reduced under salt treatment for both species. A significant decrease in the total FW and DW was observed only for T. cordata, which deposited 4.5 times more Na+ ions in the plant tissues compared with P. pyraster. In P. pyraster seedlings, Na+ ions mainly accumulated in the root (75%), and their distribution was limited to aboveground organs. Thus, a balanced content of the assimilation pigments in the leaves was maintained under salt treatment. In the initial (osmotic) phase of salt stress, P. pyraster reduced water consumption and maintained a steady rate of photosynthesis (An) per unit area. T. cordata responded to salinity by regulating stomatal conductance and increasing water use efficiency (WUE). T. cordata was not effective in blocking salt intake and transported Na+ ions to the leaves. Due to the high cumulative salt content in the substrate, the water potential of the leaf tissues and the rate of photosynthesis significantly decreased in salt-treated T. cordata seedlings. The results document the important role of the root system in the resistance of woody plants and in ensuring their survival in conditions of excessive salinity. The investment in root growth improved the water supply of P. pyraster seedlings and enhanced the retention of salt ions in the root system, thus limiting their transfer to leaves.

Chemical Composition and Related Properties of Lime (Tilia cordata Mill.) Bark and Wood as Affected by Tree Growth Conditions

Tilia cordata Mill. is a favourite tree used in urban spaces. For this reason, it is important to know its sensitivity to environmental stress, which is particularly burdensome for vegetation in urban spaces. The aim of the study was to investigate the properties necessary to control the growth of these trees and their subsequent use, i.e., chemical properties (percentage contents of cellulose, holocellulose, lignin, pentosans and substances soluble in NaOH and EtOH) as well as the chemical elements (K, Na, Mg, Ca and Fe, Zn, Cu, Pb, Cd, B, Ni, Cr, Al, As and Hg) and selected hygroscopic properties (hysteresis and sorption isotherms). Trees of Tilia cordata Mill. growing in environments exposed to environmental stress of varying severity were examined. Regardless of the growth conditions, in terms of its chemical composition, bark differs significantly from wood, showing twice the contents of soluble substances in NaOH and lignin and half the content of polysaccharides. Growth conditions clearly affect the range of selected chemical components in bark, e.g., substances soluble in ethanol, cellulose, or lignin. The main inorganic elements in bark and wood are Na, K, Ca, Mg and Zn. In bark, a relationship was found between the content of most chemical elements and differing environmental growth conditions. It was shown that environmental stress influenced the hygroscopic properties of wood and bark, which are a consequence of the percentage of chemical components.