Thermal Artifacts Research Articles

Photophysics of Benzoxazole and Dicyano Functionalised Diketopyrrolopyrrole Derivatives: Insights into Ultrafast Processes and the Triplet State.

Diketopyrrolopyrrole (DPP) functionalised with an electron donating unit acts as a donor-acceptor molecules that have shown potential for application in dyes and photovoltaics. These molecules offer broad absorption/emission properties and structure-dependent dynamics. In this study, we used femtosecond pump-probe spectroscopy to investigate the photo-initiated dynamics of thiophene linked DPP derivatives. The thio-DPPs are further functionalised by different electrons withdrawing terminal groups, namely benzoxazole and thiophene dicyanide. The benzoxazole derivative is strongly emissive and directly relaxes directly to the ground state chloroform solution. Thiophene dicyanide derivative exhibits distinct spectral evolution in the first 10 ps, associated with structural and vibronic process. Later, it crosses over to the triplet state with a yield of 20 %. In the solid-state (thin film), we observed a signal that resembles singlet fission. However, upon careful analysis of temperature-dependent steady state absorbance spectra, we conclude that these features are due to laser-induced thermal artifacts. We describe a simplified excited state evolution in the thin film that does not include any additional excited states. These findings have significant implications for the analysis of triplet formation, which plays a major role in the photophysics of many organic materials.

Estimating Cotton Canopy Temperature Artifacts in UAV-Based Thermal Measurements

Thermal sensors mounted on unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have been used for crop evaluation. The assembly of multiple UAV images into a composite orthomosaic image that represents an agricultural field is common. The creation of these composite orthomosaic images is predicated on the assumption that the variable of interest, for example, plant height, does not change in the interval between the first image and the last image. Canopy temperature is continuously variable. Thus, in a composite thermal image, the temperature differences between any two points can include both the temperature differences of the two locations, as well as the temperature change occurring during the time the images were captured. A modeling approach was used to investigate these temporal thermal artifacts in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.). The objectives were to analyze the average amount of thermal variation that can occur across a field, identify times of maximum variation, and examine the magnitude of these thermal artifacts across the temporal scale of a typical drone mission. As the time between the first image and last image increased from 15 minutes to an hour, the temporal thermal distortion increased from 0.7 to 1.4 °C for a high-water treatment and from 0.9 to 2.8 °C for a low-water treatment. The simulated flights from 1030 to 1230 h had the largest variation and the 1230 to 1430 h and 1430 to 1630 h flights had less thermal variation. Depending on the application, the thermal distortion could range from negligible to potentially significant.

Correction Due to Nonthermally Coupled Emission Bands and Its Implications on the Performance of Y2O3:Yb3+ /Er3+ Single-Particle Thermometers

Lanthanide-doped single dielectric nanoparticles have been exploited toward the realization of temperature sensing in the nanoscale with high spatial, temporal, and thermal resolution. However, due to the relatively small number of emitters when compared with suspensions or powders, the luminescence readouts in individual nanocrystals usually require higher excitation power densities to keep an acceptable signal-to-noise ratio. Since in numerous cases these thermometers work by exploiting upconversion excitation pathways, higher excitation powers can lead to higher-order photon emissions that can overlap with the luminescent bands used to perform the temperature measurements. This work shows that the performance and the characterization of ∼400 nm Y2O3: Yb3+/Er3+ single-particle thermometers vary depending on the excitation irradiance if higher-order spectrally overlapping bands are not properly taken into account. We apply a recently developed method to separate these bands based on their different power-law, without the need for multiple wavelength excitation, resulting in a correction procedure that reduces the temperature readout uncertainty from 0.6 to 0.3 K in the specific case of the thermometer investigated in this work. Additionally, power-excitation-related thermal artifacts on the order of 10 °C were detected and corrected with the presented method.

Thermal contribution in the electrical switching experiments with heavy metal/antiferromagnet structures

We examine the thermal origin of the detected “saw-tooth” shaped Hall resistance (Rxy) signals in the spin–orbit torque switching experiment for antiferromagnetic MnN. Compared with the results of the heavy metal/antiferromagnet bilayers (MnN/Ta), the qualitatively same “saw-tooth” shaped signals also appear in the samples with the heavy metal layer alone (either Ta or Pt) without the MnN layer. In addition, the Rxy signal changes oppositely in the devices with Ta and Pt, due to the opposite temperature coefficient of resistivity of the two materials. All those results are consistent with the “localized Joule heating” mechanism in devices with Hall crosses geometry. Moreover, by utilizing a structure with separated writing current paths and Hall cross area, the quadratic relationship between ΔRxy and the writing current's amplitude is observed, which provides quantitative evidence of the thermal contribution. These results reveal the dominant thermal artifact in the widely used Hall crosses geometry for Néel vector probing and also provide a strategy to semi-quantitatively evaluate the thermal effect, which can shed light on a more conclusive experiment design.

Comparing loop electrosurgical procedure pathology results in the inpatient and outpatient setting (474)

<b>Objectives:</b> In the management of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN), loop electrosurgical excision procedure (LEEP) provides diagnostic information and may be therapeutic. Margin status is a key prognostic factor, given that patients with positive margins demonstrate a five-fold increased risk of any grade CIN recurrence. LEEP can be safely performed in inpatient or outpatient settings as dictated by patient preference, equipment availability, and anatomic considerations. However, there is limited evidence comparing outcomes as they relate to the LEEP treatment settings. We sought to evaluate quality outcomes and margin status of inpatient versus outpatient LEEPs. <b>Methods:</b> All patients who underwent LEEP between April 2019 and August 2021 at a single institution were identified. Chart review was conducted to extract patient demographics, clinical risk factors, and pathology outcomes. Mann-Whitney U and Chi-square tests were used for statistical analysis. <b>Results:</b> We analyzed 291 LEEP specimens, 254 (87%) in the outpatient setting and 37 (13%) in the inpatient setting. Table 1 lists patient characteristics and pathologic outcomes data. There was a significant difference in the median age, BMI, and parity between the two groups. The reasons for inpatient LEEP listed were difficult anatomy (<i>n</i>=12, 32%), lack of access to equipment required for LEEP (<i>n</i>=11, 30%), patient preference (<i>n</i>=4, 11%), concern for malignancy (<i>n</i>=3, 8%), patient comorbidity (<i>n</i>=3, 8%), large area of dysplasia (<i>n</i>=2, 5%), and combined case with other inpatient procedure (<i>n</i>=2, 5%). All comorbid conditions were related to bleeding disorders. There were significant differences between colposcopy and LEEP pathology results with respect to grade of dysplasia and evidence of malignancy. No significant differences were identified with respect to the frequency of thermal artifact affecting pathologic interpretation of margin status. Interestingly, LEEPs performed in the inpatient setting were associated with greater specimen depth and multiple tissue samples (not including endocervical curettage) compared to outpatient LEEPs. <b>Conclusions:</b> In this single-institution, retrospective study, there was no significant difference between inpatient and outpatient LEEP procedures with respect to the thermal artifact and margin status. This may result from the more ubiquitous use of P16 immunohistochemical staining to evaluate specimen margins. Although the depth of the resected specimen was significantly greater when performed in the operating room, there was also an apparent increase in specimen number, potentially reflecting larger visible lesions requiring multiple resections. These results suggest that outpatient LEEP procedures may be equally effective in managing CIN, with potential cost implications.

Detection and manipulation of the antiferromagnetic Néel vector in Cr2O3

Detection and manipulation of the N\'eel vector in antiferromagnetic materials are promising for more stable, faster, and much higher-density spintronic devices. However, the electrical manipulation of the antiferromagnetic N\'eel vector remains challenging and controversial due to the difficulty in the detection of the zero net magnetization and the unavoidable complications from thermal artifacts. In this work, by utilizing the uniaxial antiferromagnet (AFM) ${\mathrm{Cr}}_{2}{\mathrm{O}}_{3}$, we demonstrate the detection and manipulation of the antiferromagnetic N\'eel vector. We reveal unambiguously the spin-dependent electrical responses of the coherent ${\mathrm{Cr}}_{2}{\mathrm{O}}_{3}$ N\'eel vector switching, where a symmetric Hall signal and a fourfold angular-dependent magnetoresistance are captured. We also demonstrate the in-plane arbitrary manipulation of the ${\mathrm{Cr}}_{2}{\mathrm{O}}_{3}$ N\'eel vector when the magnetocrystalline anisotropy energy is compensated. Our work for detecting and manipulating N\'eel vectors offers a critical guide for antiferromagnetic-based N\'eel vector switching exploration.

Thermal Drift Correction for Laboratory Nano Computed Tomography via Outlier Elimination and Feature Point Adjustment.

Thermal drift of nano-computed tomography (CT) adversely affects the accurate reconstruction of objects. However, feature-based reference scan correction methods are sometimes unstable for images with similar texture and low contrast. In this study, based on the geometric position of features and the structural similarity (SSIM) of projections, a rough-to-refined rigid alignment method is proposed to align the projection. Using the proposed method, the thermal drift artifacts in reconstructed slices are reduced. Firstly, the initial features are obtained by speeded up robust features (SURF). Then, the outliers are roughly eliminated by the geometric position of global features. The features are refined by the SSIM between the main and reference projections. Subsequently, the SSIM between the neighborhood images of features are used to relocate the features. Finally, the new features are used to align the projections. The two-dimensional (2D) transmission imaging experiments reveal that the proposed method provides more accurate and robust results than the random sample consensus (RANSAC) and locality preserving matching (LPM) methods. For three-dimensional (3D) imaging correction, the proposed method is compared with the commonly used enhanced correlation coefficient (ECC) method and single-step discrete Fourier transform (DFT) algorithm. The results reveal that proposed method can retain the details more faithfully.

Real-Time In Vivo Imaging of Human Liver Vasculature Using Coherent Flow Power Doppler: A Pilot Clinical Study.

Power Doppler (PD) is a commonly used technique for flow detection and vessel visualization in radiology clinics. Despite its broad set of applications, PD suffers from multiple noise sources and artifacts, such as thermal noise, clutter, and flash artifacts. In addition, a tradeoff exists between acquisition time and Doppler image quality. These limit the ability of clinical PD imaging in deep-lying and small-vessel detection and visualization, particularly among patients with high body mass indices (BMIs). To improve the Doppler vessel detection, we have previously proposed coherent flow PD (CFPD) imaging and demonstrated its performance on porcine vasculature. In this article, we report on a pilot clinical study of CFPD imaging on healthy human volunteers and patients with high BMI to assess the clinical feasibility of the technique in liver imaging. In this study, we built a real-time CFPD imaging system using a graphical processing unit (GPU)-based software beamformer and a CFPD processing module. Using the real-time CFPD imaging system, the liver vasculature of 15 healthy volunteers with normal BMI below 25 and 15 patients with BMI greater than 25 was imaged. Both PD and CFPD image streams were produced simultaneously. The generalized contrast-to-noise ratio (gCNR) of the PD and CFPD images was measured to provide the quantitative evaluation of image quality and vessel detectability. Comparison of PD and CFPD image shows that gCNR is improved by 35% in healthy volunteers and 28% in high BMI patients with CFPD compared to PD. Example images are provided to show that the improvement in the Doppler image gCNR leads to greater detection of small vessels in the liver. In addition, we show that CFPD can suppress in vivo reverberation clutter in clinical imaging.

Deriving VTEC Maps from SMOS Radiometric Data

In this work, a new methodology is proposed in order to derive vertical total electron content (VTEC) maps from the radiometric measurements of the Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS) mission as an alternative approach to those based on external databases and models. This approach uses spatiotemporal filtering techniques with optimized filters to be robust against the thermal noise and image reconstruction artifacts present in SMOS images. It is also possible to retrieve the Faraday rotation angle from the recovered VTEC maps in order to correct the effect that it causes in the SMOS brightness temperatures.

Absence of Evidence of Electrical Switching of the Antiferromagnetic Néel Vector.

Much theoretical and experimental attention has been focused on the electrical switching of the antiferromagnetic (AFM) Néel vector via spin-orbit torque. Measurements employing multiterminal patterned structures of Pt/AFM show recurring signals of the supposedly planar Hall effect and magnetoresistance, implying AFM switching. We show in this Letter that similar signals have been observed in structures with and without the AFM layer, and of an even larger magnitude using different metals and substrates. These may not be the conclusive evidence of spin-orbit torque switching of AFM, but the thermal artifacts of patterned metal structure on substrate. Large current densities in the metallic devices, beyond the Ohmic regime, can generate unintended anisotropic thermal gradients and voltages. AFM switching requires unequivocal detection of the AFM Néel vector before and after SOT switching.

34BetaE12 and Alfa-Methylacyl Coenzyme A Racemase (AMACR) Antibodies Better Than p63 Antibody Distinguish Normal and Neoplastic Glands in Prostatic Tissue With Thermal Artifacts.

The occurrence of inked margins with crush artifact derived from the electrocauterization in radical prostatectomy and/or the presence of crushed areas with distorted glands in prostatic samples after transurethral resection of prostate (TURP) can induce a significant interobserver variability during histopathologic evaluation of specimens. The specific immunostaining for basal cell markers 34BetaE12 and p63 and for alfa-methylacyl coenzyme A racemase (AMACR) in neoplastic cells is commonly used as an ancillary tool to establish benign and malignant glands. In this study we carried out the immunohistochemical reactions for p63, 34BetaE12, and AMACR on 3 different and successive paraffin sections to discriminate malignant and benign prostatic glands, distorted and crushed by the thermal artifacts in 60 radical prostatectomies and 50 TURP samples. All prostatic acinar adenocarcinoma showed the loss of basal cell markers and expression of AMACR, whereas p63 failed to stain the basal cell layer in benign crushed prostatic glands. The same cauterized glands were steadily positive for 34BetaE12. The high percentage of p63 false negative cases in benign distorted and crushed glands could be explained by the thermal artifacts which might cause lack of p63 antigenicity. In contrast, the antigenicity of 34BetaE12 and AMACR seem not to be affected by cautery artifacts. Thus, in cauterized suspicious prostatic glands an immunohistochemistry panel including, p63, 34BetaE12, and AMACR or only 34BetaE12 is recommended. In addition, after the first evaluation with only p63, we suggest that a separate and confirmatory staining for 34BetaE12 is strongly recommended.

Excision of the transformation zone: a comparison between large loop excision of the transformation zone, needle excision of the transformation zone, and laser conization

Objective: To compare three methods of excision of the transformation zone (ETZ). Design: A retrospective cross-sectional study, comparing three techniques of ETZ: LASER CO2, large loop excision of the transformation zone (LLETZ), and needle excision of the transformation zone (NETZ) in a cervical pathology unit between January 2016 and July 2017. Material and methods: Data files were consulted and complemented with the institutional medical record SClinico®. The characteristics of the women and the specimen cone were obtained. The complications of the procedures and follow-up at 6 and 12 months were assessed. Statistical analyses were achieved using SPSS® 25 software. Results: During the target period, 201 of women were subjected to LASER CO2, 85 to LLETZ, and 15 to NETZ. The excisional specimens obtained did not show statistical differences in resection margin status and thermal artifacts. On average, only LASER ETZ obtained deeper excisional specimens compared to the other two techniques. During the procedures, NETZ showed a more significant bleeding risk compared to LASER ETZ (RR 0.29, 95%CI 0.09-0.93) and LLETZ (RR 0.17, 95%CI 0.05-0.65). NETZ also presented a 20% higher incidence of postoperative complications. Although the difference was not statistically significant, the women who underwent NETZ showed greater risk of maintaining cytological abnormalities and/or high risk-HPV at the 6th- and 12th-month follow-ups. Conclusion: There is no clear evidence of the best ETZ technique, but it seems that the LASER and LLETZ methods are both safe and effective options in ETZ.

Bipolar Transurethral Resection of Bladder Tumor Provides Better Tissue for Histopathology But Has No Superior Efficacy and Safety: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

Bipolar transurethral resection of bladder tumors (TURBTs) has been claimed to have lesser complications and better specimen quality, but recent studies have contradictory results, and hence, we conducted this study to compare the clinical efficacy and safety of monopolar and bipolar electrosurgical modalities in TURBTs. A total of 287 patients were enrolled in the study and underwent TURBTs between July 2015 and September 2016. Patients undergoing surgery under general anesthesia and restage procedure were excluded from the study. Patient demographic profile, tumor characteristics, and complications of the procedures such as obturator jerk, bladder perforation, blood loss, need for resurgery, and transurethral resection syndrome were recorded. Tumor specimens were analyzed for stage, grade, deep muscle invasion, and quantity and quality of thermal artifacts. A total of 160 patients were block randomized and analyzed with 80 patients in either group. Patient demographics and tumor characteristics were comparable between the groups. Change in hemoglobin levels and incidence of bladder perforation were comparable between the groups. A higher proportion of patients in bipolar group had obturator jerk compared with those in monopolar group, however, it was not statistically significant (24% vs 14%; p = 0.23). A higher proportion of patients in bipolar group did not have thermal artifacts when compared with monopolar group (27.5% vs 5%; p < 0.0001). The operative risks of bipolar TURBT such as obturator jerk, bladder perforation, and blood loss are comparable with monopolar resection. However, less thermal artifacts in tissue samples obtained with bipolar resection may be helpful to the pathologist in interpretation of histopathologic findings.

The reliability of the specimens for neuropathological evaluation in pituitary adenomas treated via transphenoidal route

Introduction: There are some discrepancies between immunohistochemical staining results and clinical picture of pituitary adenomas. Such a discordance may be caused by multiple factors. The problem of securing the histopathological material during the transsphenoidal pituitary surgery and its reliability for neuropathological evaluation deserves a special attention. The surgical biopsy does not always meet the criteria required for a immunohistochemical staining and sometimes not even for the routine histopatho-logical examination. Aims: To determine the frequency of unreliable material for histopathological examination and factors influencing the reliability of histopathological specimens after surgery for pituitary adenomas. Material and methods: The hematoxylin and eosin sections were examined in detail. with a special attention to the presence of incidental findings, i.e. admixture of normal pituitary gland tissue, signs of hemorrhage, necrosis, thermal artifacts, inflammatory changes, respiratory epithelium, vessels or cholesterol granuloma. The impact of incidental findings on further immunohistochemical analysis was investigated. The relationship between the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)- determined tumor size and the area of histopathological specimen was assessed and considered as a reliability parameter. Results: The unreliable material was estimated at the level of 11.8%. It was assessed that hemorrhages, neurohypophysis, necrosis and quantity of collected histopathological material had the statistically sig-nificant impact on the reliability of the histopathological material. The statistical analysis did not show any relation between the reliability of the histopathological material and the MRI-determined volume of the tumor. Conclusions: The presence of some additional tissue elements and artifacts in the histopathological specimen makes the immunohistochemical evaluation difficult or even impossible. However, this problem is related to a relatively low percentage of cases, mainly small tumors.

Factitious Dermatitis Due to Thermal Burn With Histologic Features Simulating Fixed Drug Eruption.

Factitious dermatitis (FD) (dermatitis artefacta) is rare and often difficult to diagnose because of conflicting history and nonspecific clinical and histologic findings. It can present with varied clinical features including geometric ulcers, erosions, and less commonly bullae secondary to external trauma from chemicals, electric burns, heat, and suction. Herein, we describe a case of bullous FD due to thermal burn with histologic features demonstrating overlap with fixed drug eruption. Histopathology demonstrated a subepidermal blister with epidermal necrosis along with pigment incontinence and dermal eosinophils and neutrophils. Although these features, and the clinician's impression, were suggestive of fixed drug eruption, several morphologic findings allowed accurate diagnosis of FD: sharp demarcation of necrotic keratinocytes from adjacent uninvolved epidermis, elongated keratinocytes reminiscent of thermal or electrical artifact, and multinucleated keratinocytes. Although FD is often considered a diagnosis of exclusion, these clues may help dermatopathologists distinguish this entity from inflammatory dermatoses.

Cautery artifact understages urothelial cancer at initial transurethral resection of large bladder tumours.

We sought to determine how frequently cautery (thermal) artifact precludes an accurate determination of stage at initial transurethral resection of bladder tumour (TURBT) of large bladder tumours. We queried our institution's billing data to identify patients who underwent TURBT for large bladder tumours >5cm (CPT 52240) by two urologists at an academic centre from January 2009 through April 2013. Only patients who underwent initial-staging TURBT for urothelial cancer were included. Pathological reports were reviewed for stage, number of separate pathological specimens per TURBT, and presence of cautery artifact. Operative reports were reviewed for whether additional cold cup biopsies were taken of other suspicious areas of the bladder, resident involvement, and type of electrocautery. We identified 119 patients who underwent initial staging TURBT for large tumours. Cautery artifact interfered with accurate staging in 7/119 (6%) of cases. Of these, six patients underwent restaging TURBT, with 50% percent experiencing upstaging to T2 disease. Tumour size, tumour grade, whether additional cold cup biopsies were taken, number of separate pathological specimens sent, and resident involvement were not associated with cautery artifact (all p>0.05). Bipolar resection had a higher rate of cautery artifact 5/42 (12%), compared to monopolar resection 2/77 (2.6%) approaching significance (p=0.095). Cautery artifact may delay accurate staging at initial TURBT for large tumours by understaging up to 6% of patients.

Concomitant enhancement of the longitudinal spin Seebeck effect and the thermal conductivity in a Pt/YIG/Pt system at low temperatures

We report a simultaneous measurement of a longitudinal spin Seebeck effect (LSSE) and thermal conductivity in a Pt/${\rm Y_{3}Fe_{5}O_{12}}$ (YIG)/Pt system in a temperature range from 10 to 300 K. By directly monitoring the temperature difference in the system, we excluded thermal artifacts in the LSSE measurements. It is found that both the LSSE signal and the thermal conductivity of YIG exhibit sharp peaks at the same temperature, differently from previous reports. The maximum LSSE coefficient is found to be $S{\rm_{LSSE}}>10\ \mu{\rm V/K}$, one-order-of magnitude greater than the previously reported values. The concomitant enhancement of the LSSE and thermal conductivity of YIG suggests the strong correlation between magnon and phonon transport in the LSSE.

A procedure for resolving thermal artifacts in pressure transducers

Many watershed studies rely on pressure transducers to measure and report stream and groundwater levels in order to characterize the hydrology of the region. The accuracy of pressure transducers in some applications have recently been questioned in studies reporting artificially exaggerated high or low pressure readings that cannot be explained by daily hydrological fluctuations. In a watershed field investigation, data analyses have revealed, for some sensors, patterns of artificial changes in stream and groundwater levels as a function of water and atmospheric temperature. These patterns do not follow the expected variation that could be caused by natural phenomena (i.e. changes in head caused by evapotranspiration). Laboratory analyses of temperature-induced artificial pressure changes reproduces this error and yielded functional relationships for thermal artifact corrections. Using these relationships, stream and groundwater levels can be back-calculated yielding a more accurate watershed hydrologic characterization. By removing the thermal artifacts from laboratory and field data, errors are reduced by up to 65% (laboratory) and 81% (field data). The developed procedure can be used in other settings where pressure transducers are used, such as studies in rainfall/runoff variations, runoff measurements in urban settings, and the impacts of new development in rural watersheds.

Frozen section evaluation of margins in radical prostatectomy specimens: a contemporary study and literature review.

The utility of routine frozen section (FS) analysis for margin evaluation during radical prostatectomy (RP) remains controversial. A retrospective search was conducted to identify RPs evaluated by FS over a 5-year period. The potential of FS to discriminate between benign and malignant tissue and to predict final margins was evaluated. During the study period, 71 (12.3%) of 575 cases underwent FS evaluation of margins, generating 192 individual FSs. There were 8 FSs diagnosed as atypical/indeterminate because of significant freezing, crushing, and/or thermal artifacts; 11 as positive for carcinoma; and 173 as benign. Two FSs classified as benign were diagnosed as positive for carcinoma on subsequent permanent section. Frozen sections' sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, negative predictive value, and accuracy for diagnosis of prostatic adenocarcinoma were 85%, 100%, 100%, 99%, and 99%, respectively. Overall RP final margin predictive accuracy was 81%. Positive FS was significantly associated with perineural invasion on biopsy and extraprostatic extension and higher stage disease on RP, but not with the overall final margin status. The high FS accuracy supports its use to guide the extent of surgery. However, FS cannot be used to predict the overall final margin status. Recognition of the histological artifacts inherent to the FS procedure is important to ensure appropriate utilization.

Optimization of femtosecond laser processing of silicon via numerical modeling

Surface processing of silicon using a 400-fs ytterbium fiber laser has been experimentally investigated. Processing was conducted using an average power of 20 W at laser repetition rates from 500 kHz – 2 MHz and scanning speeds up to 2.8 mm/s. Samples showed both effective material removal and detrimental surface artifacts resulting from high surface temperatures during the ablation process. A numerical model has been constructed to simulate the macroscopic surface heating mechanism in femtosecond laser processing. The model validates the experimental results, predicting the observed occurrence of oxidation and melting for un-optimized laser parameters. The surface-heating sensitivity to laser repetition rate, laser fluence, and scanning speed has been comprehensively analyzed, allowing for the first identification of optimized processing conditions to control surface heating and mitigate thermal artifacts in femtosecond laser processing. This work demonstrates a path for predicting deterministic femtosecond laser processing of silicon and other materials.