Territorial Defense Research Articles

Дистанційні технології в організації асинхронного навчання студентів: виклики, проблеми, рішення

Abstract. New computer technologies, which became the cause of the information revolution in education in the second half of the 20th century, gave impetus to the rapid development of distance learning methods and the formation of the concept of open education. Distance learning at the turn of the second and third millennia became a global phenomenon and significantly changed the structure of education systems in many countries of the world. In the conditions of the information society, during the avalanche-like growth of the amount of knowledge accumulated by mankind, the intensity of updating theoretical provisions, practical information, and experimental results, necessary for use in various spheres of human activity, increases. The objective necessity of development and improvement of knowledge transmission mechanisms, which provide the possibility of continuous training of a large number of people throughout their lives in accordance with the needs of the individual and society, is becoming urgent. The problem of the introduction of remote technologies into the educational process became particularly widespread during the coronavirus pandemic. However, asynchronous distance learning itself became especially relevant with the beginning of hostilities on the territory of Ukraine, which led to the restriction of education seekers in access to the Internet, damage to telecommunication networks, lack of electricity supply, mass migration of refugees, the destruction of educational institutions, the involvement of education seekers in the ranks of the territorial defense etc. There was a need to organize the educational process and present educational materials, conduct control measures considering all the circumstances of today. Thus, Sumy State University, with the support of the distance learning MIX platform, organized distance learning for students of physical and technical specialties in synchronous and asynchronous distance format. The work highlights the peculiarities of providing educational services to students with limited access to educational materials (work in an asynchronous format). The article focuses on the issues of training organization, which consider the student's work in an asynchronous format. Explanations are provided for some special aspects of the organization of such training. An analysis of the advantages and disadvantages of the chosen form of work was made. The article highlights further directions of work on improvement and optimization of relevant educational materials and forms of their presentation to extend learning in today's difficult conditions. Key words: distance learning, synchronous and asynchronous learning format, MIX distance learning platform, and remote access, mathematical and physical disciplines.

Vocal performance during spontaneous song is equal in male and female European robins

The song of male birds is implicated in mate attraction and territory defence and assumed to evolve through sexual selection. Song production is hypothesized to represent a biomechanical challenge under physical, respiratory and neural limitation, leading to trade-offs. Although both sexes sing in numerous species, vocal performance has been little studied in females. European robins, Erithacus rubecula , of both sexes sing in autumn and winter to defend exclusive individual territories. We recorded robins singing spontaneously, that is, when not engaged in overt territorial interactions. We identified a trade-off between two acoustic parameters: (1) the frequency ratio between successive song elements and (2) the duration of gaps between these elements. This trade-off might represent a vocal production limit. To compare vocal performance between the sexes we used two measures: vocal gap deviation (the difference between how the bird sings and the theoretical performance maximum according to the putative vocal production limit we had identified) and sound density (the proportion of the song over which sound is present). Males and females did not differ in these two measures of vocal performance suggesting that the territory defence function of the song is used in social competition with members of either sex. In both sexes, vocal performance was not correlated with morphometric measures and repeatability coefficients were very small. Thus, vocal performance probably does not convey information about the signaller's body size or body condition, at least in spontaneous song of robins. These results inform the debate on selection forces driving female song. • Birdsong is subject to vocal production limits. • Certain birds sing close to such limits and thus reach high vocal performance. • Female birdsong and female vocal performance have been understudied. • Female European robins reach the same level of vocal performance as males in winter. • Female song seems important in territorial defence against male and female robins.

Chub movement is attracted by the collision sounds associated with spawning activities

Cyprinids (carps, chubs and minnows) possess well-developed hearing and high sensitivity to sound pressure. The sensitive hearing may assist cyprinids with searching for food, territory defense, and mating behavior. Many paired fishes violently shake in sand and gravel while spawning in rivers. However, no study has examined the ecological importance of the collision sound made by the behavior. This study examined whether cohabitated chubs (Opsariichthys evolans and Zacco platypus) use the collision sound as a signal to locate spawning events so they can be a male satellite or egg eater. Three types of sounds (i.e., collision sound, music noise and ambient noise) were played with or without jerkbaits at the midstream of the Keelung River, Taiwan during the spawning season in 2018 and 2019. Generalized linear mixed models were then built to examine the effects of the sound types and the presence of jerkbaits on the number of individuals that the two chubs attracted. Results showed significantly different levels of attractiveness among the three sound types, with the collision sound attracting most fishes, including both females and males, followed by music noise and ambient noise. The presence of jerkbaits increased the number of fishes attracted, but the effect was only statistically marginally significant. These results suggest that the collision sound as an acoustic signal may be more important than a visual signal for the chubs to locate spawning events of other mating pairs, probably because of the longer transmission distance of the former. The present study demonstrates the ecological meanings of the collision sounds made in association with spawning activities of the chubs and implies that the native chub's spawning activities may be affected by the introduced Z. platypus. More studies on the interactions between these cohabitated chubs will benefit the conservation of native chubs.

Indigenous communication in Latin America for social re-existence: communicative experiences in the Colombian Cauca

ABSTRACT This paper contributes to the study of communication in Latin America through a theoretical proposal called communication for social re-existence. This concept emerges from the analysis of the community practices of the Nasa indigenous people in the Cauca region of Colombia in which communication and territorial defense are interrelated. Using the metaphor of weaving, this communicative approach is represented as comprising knots (the participating actors), gaps (spaces for reflection) and threads (the strategies). This research hopes to be the beginning of a communicative methodology that will be useful within the organizational proposals of subaltern movements.

Song functions for joint territory defence and within-pair communication in female and male lovely fairy-wrens

Song has been extensively studied in birds and is considered a classic example of a sexually selected trait. However, this interpretation is based predominantly on studies of males. There is growing evidence that female song is common and phylogenetically widespread, but there are still relatively few species for which song similarities and differences between the sexes have been described. We investigated the function of female and male song in the lovely fairy-wren, Malurus amabilis , a tropical species that maintains territories year-round. We tested whether song structure and sex-specific seasonal variation in song rates across breeding and nonbreeding stages were consistent with expectations of key hypotheses for song function. We did this with temporarily caged and free-living birds. We also experimentally examined female and male responses to simulated territorial intrusion, using playbacks simulating solo intruders of either sex singing songs that varied in complexity (i.e. the variety of elements in song). Females and males had similar song structure, complexity and natural song rates and both sang more during nonbreeding than breeding periods. Within each breeding stage, males sang more than females during incubation, a period of female-only investment in parental care. Both sexes sang more when they were more than 5 m apart than when close together in their dense tropical habitat. Females and males responded similarly to simulated intrusion and coordinated their responses. They responded more strongly to male than female song playbacks and to simple playback songs after they were exposed to complex songs, during both breeding and nonbreeding periods. Our observational and experimental data show that female and male songs are similar and suggest that convergent selective pressures may explain similar functions of song, primarily in joint territorial defence of resources and within-pair communication for coordination. • More systematic studies comparing female and male birdsong are needed. • We investigated birds' song form and function in a female and male tropical bird. • Females and males have similar songs which suggests convergent selective pressures. • Both sexes sang more during nonbreeding periods than during breeding periods. • Both sexes have similar song functions for territorial defence and pair communication.

Workload Distribution and Division of Labor in Cooperative Societies

Cooperative groups are ubiquitous in animals, as are the challenges of allocating labor to accomplish cooperative tasks, including territory defense, hunting, and brood care. Individual contributions can differ in two ways, both of which can influence fitness: group members can vary in overall helpfulness (workload) or they can specialize on different tasks (division of labor). In this review, we encourage additional, simultaneous study of both workload distribution and division of labor. Historically, workload distribution has been studied in the contexts of collective action and cooperative offspring care. Both areas of research aim to understand how shared benefits can emerge from individual contributions, but they remain poorly integrated. We argue that each of these literatures has strengths that could benefit the other, and we highlight potential areas of crosstalk. Next, we review the literature on division of labor in taxa other than the eusocial insects, discuss parallels and differences in division of labor between eusocial insects and other animals, and encourage more work on cooperative, noninsect taxa. Rigorous work on individual contributions to cooperative tasks will expand our understanding of the causes and consequences of individual variation and the evolutionary stability of social living.

Four Let Ters From Ukraine

Four Let Ters From Ukraine Elliot Ackerman (bio) March 15, 2022 We arrived in Lviv last night, at around 3:00 a.m. The bus ride from Warsaw took ten hours. I’m traveling with Matt again, my old friend from reporting trips to Iraq and Syria. The city remains under a blackout ordinance and a curfew, so when the bus’s interior lights came on, all I could really see in the window was my reflection. The streets were deserted. Google Maps showed us near the intersection of Shevchenka and Yeroshenka Streets, about a mile from our hotel. The bus was continuing to the main depot, which is farther outside the city, so we decided to hop off. We soon regretted the decision. The territorial defense forces patrol the streets, and if they stopped us, I would have little more than my press pass and a few words of Ukrainian to explain why we were out after curfew. Iraqis and Syrians would often confuse Matt for Russian when we’d traveled together in the past. Blond-haired, blue-eyed, and standing well over six feet, Matt is a former college rower who had once driven a trailer from Germany to Iraq at the height of that [End Page 720] country’s war to deliver sculls to a burgeoning Iraqi national crew team. A Farsi speaker, he’d also studied in an exchange program at Tehran University, which he failed to complete after the Iranian authorities accused him of espionage and imprisoned him for forty-one days in 2015. He spent thirty of those in solitary confinement and was released as a concession to the Obama administration during negotiations for the Iran nuclear agreement later that year. When we first met, he was leading a firm that evaluated the efficacy of humanitarian responses in Syria. When I told him I was heading to Ukraine and wanted him to come, he didn’t say yes right away. He explained that he was hesitant to rush off to another war zone, that war zones attract what he calls the three m’s: missionaries, mercenaries, and misfits. He’d had enough of all three. I told him there was a fourth m. “What’s that?” “Matt,” I’d said. After a few blocks trundling our suitcases over the cobblestones, I spied a black sedan idling on the roadside. When Matt knocked on the glass, the driver woke with a start. “Taxi?” Matt asked. The driver nodded glumly. We piled our bags in his trunk, and he sped us through town to the hotel I’d booked on Expedia a week before. It never ceases to amaze me that you can e-book your rooms in a war zone. Wars can often feel to me like distant, far-off things, even though I have experience writing about them and fighting in them. With a war I’ve never seen, I usually feel this distance. The stream of headlines, the assault of images—it commodifies war, condenses it into a packageable story. When I feel that distance—whether I’m planning to head to that war or not—I’ll often pull out my phone and see what it would take to get to the front line. In nearly every instance, I discover I could arrive at the war with a place to stay within twenty-four hours. And suddenly, the war feels closer. [End Page 721] Before we left the States, I had reserved the last two rooms at our hotel. I’d also phoned ahead, just to make certain everything was in order. However, when we arrived, the hotel doors were locked, the lights were out, and the receptionist was nowhere to be seen. Technically, we didn’t have rooms until the next night, but I thought we could at least sleep in the lobby until breakfast. I was growing worried and thought we’d have to sleep in the street, in temperatures that hovered around freezing, until curfew lifted. After a third phone call, a light went on in a back room. A bleary-eyed receptionist emerged, a young woman with platinum-blond hair and the look of a Eurovision singer...

Know your enemy: The dragonfly Erythrodiplax fusca (Libellulidae) uses eavesdropping to obtain information about potential rivals

Animals can eavesdrop on other competitors during territorial defense disputes to better choose rivals weaker than themselves and increase the chances of monopolizing resources. In dragonflies, males often compete for access to water bodies, which attract sexually receptive females to mate and lay eggs. During the breeding season, satellite males can observe fights between territory owners and intruders and, therefore, obtain information about potential rivals through visual cues. Consequently, weaker competitors may face more intense competition than stronger ones when defending a territory. In this study, we conducted field experiments with the dragonfly Erythrodiplax fusca to investigate whether eavesdropping on territorial disputes, using visual cues, affects the intensity of competition that territory owners face. We recorded the number of intruders that engage in disputes against males that recently occupied territories in two groups: the “eavesdropping” group (i.e., individuals with access to rivals’ prior information) and the control group (i.e., competitors with no access to prior information). The number of intruders was greater in the eavesdropping group compared to the control group. This effect depended on the interaction between the size of the territory owners and the presence of eavesdropping. The number of intruders decreased with increase in the size of the owners in the presence of eavesdropping, but this relationship did not occur in the control group. We discuss the implications of our findings for the male decision-making process to initiate agonistic disputes and how investigating eavesdropping behavior can improve current models of conflict resolution in animals.

The legal foundation for the participation of citizens in the territorial defense of Ukraine

The article analyzes the legal foundation for the participation of citizens in the territorial defense of Ukraine and volunteer formations of the territorial communities during armed aggression. The concepts of territorial defense, resistance movement and national resistance are considered.
 The purpose of national resistance is understood as increasing the defense capability of the state, giving the defense of Ukraine a comprehensive character, and helping to ensure the readiness of Ukrainian citizens for national resistance.
 It has been systematized the information on the status of the territorial defense of Ukraine at the end of February 2022 and it was identified the problematic issues that the territorial communities faced in the process of organizing resistance forces in the subordinate territories during the full-scale armed aggression of the Russian Federation against Ukraine.
 There are some problems that the communities faced in organizing resistance forces on their territories at the beginning of the war. Among them there were singled out: the lack of coordination of the activities of volunteer battalions, military administrations and law enforcement agencies; problems of identifying certain groups of the population as volunteer formations; lack of proper financial and logistical support for territorial defense units of the Armed Forces and volunteer formations.
 It has been analyzed the main components of the territorial defense, including military, civil and military-civilian. The features of the creation of volunteer formations and territorial communities and the procedure for their recruitment are considered, as well the requirements of volunteers under the legislation of Ukraine.
 It is noted that the basis of volunteer formations of territorial communities should be the citizens of Ukraine who have completed military service in the Armed Forces of Ukraine or the service of other military formations and law enforcement agencies.
 It has also been defined the rules in accordance with which the citizens can participate in repelling and deterring the armed aggression of the Russian Federation and other states, including the rules that regulate the procedure for purchasing the firearms and the ammunition for it, as well as the procedure for its use in a military conflict.

Maximizing sexual signal transmission: use of multiple display sites by male houbara bustards

A good location of song or call posts and visual display sites of males is crucial for territory defence and mate attraction. These sites are typically located at prominent positions to ensure an efficient, long-distance sexual advertisement. If the purpose of display sites is to maximize visibility, a suitable strategy would be to use multiple display sites rather than just one site. We investigated this in the ground-displaying houbara bustard by using two recent technological advances that enabled us collecting high precision data, GSM/GPRS loggers provided with accelerometer and very high-resolution digital elevation models of the terrain. We found that 12 out of 20 marked males used two or three display sites instead of just one as previously assumed in this species. The most used display site had the largest viewshed and use of both alternative sites decreased in proportion to their decreasing viewsheds. The number of display sites was apparently determined by two factors. First, it was correlated with display intensity, suggesting that using multiple display sites may be a mechanism to increase sexual signal transmission in males that are dominant or in better condition. Second, supplementary display sites were not used when the principal display site already provided an excellent view of the surroundings, e.g. when it was located on a hilltop. These results confirmed that the function of secondary display sites is to supplement the viewshed provided by the principal display site, and so maximize sexual signal transmission.Significance statementPerforming sexual display from just a single place is often not enough to reach all possible mates or competitors, so using multiple posts may be crucial for an effective sexual signal transmission. This is particularly important when the display is visual, and topographical barriers or vegetation may block the male’s line of view. Using last generation GSM/GPRS loggers equipped with accelerometers and very high-resolution digital elevation models of the terrain, we show how houbara bustard males, who perform a costly running display on the ground, have developed a complex display pattern that involves the use of various nearby display sites. These display sites are used in proportion to their visibilities, which shows that this multiple display site system has evolved to maximize the aggregated visual field of males and so increase their visibility to females and neighbour males.

The Tower of Nisida as centre of 17th century fortified naples system

The paper investigates the territorial layout of the fortified system of Naples that developed during the Spanish Vice Kingdom in the 16th-17th centuries.Both existing castles and towers, and constructions built for the purpose, were included in the system. The Tower of Nisida is one of the existing ancient towers that became part of the impressive 17th century defense system of Naples.The study focus is on the strategic importance acquired by Nisida and its Tower in those years, when it became a key location in the fortified system, both evidencing its cruciality through the study of the field of vision that widens from the location and dealing the issue with the point of view landscape and territorial defense, recalling the concept that the defense architecture is part of architectural heritage.

Legal reform in Ukraine: conceptual problems and strategic directions of its provision

The article considers the strategic directions of legal reform, as well as the state of political support of the relevant processes. The need for thorough scientifi c knowledge of the process of legal reform in the Russian-Ukrainian war and postwar reconstruction of society and the state is emphasized. It turns out that the main conceptual idea that should be the basis of the strategy of legal reform is the attitude to the “human”, the recognition of his highest value. It is noted that the strategic idea and the main direction of legal reform is to ensure the rule of law, which is the basis of a democratic society and modern constitutionalism. In this context, emphasis is placed on the need for systemic changes in the legislation of Ukraine on human rights, local self-government, administrative and territorial organization, democracy, parliamentarism, justice, national security and defense. Recommendations are made and relevant legislative proposals are substantiated. It is argued that the strategy of legal reform should focus on solving major systemic political and closely related (economic, social, cultural, informational, national security, etc.) issues in ensuring, implementing and protecting the principles of human dignity, freedom, justice, the rule of law, ensuring human rights, social, legal and democratic statehood and the separation of powers in the face of today’s challenges. It is argued that the strategy of legal reform should determine not only its purpose and principles, but also tactics of transformation in the legal system, vectors of movement, priorities and indicators of appropriate organizational, political, legal, scientifi c, informational and other conditions for modernizing legal system of Ukraine. Key words: legal reform, strategy, Constitution, law, political system, legal system, rule of law

On the Use of Guerrillas in Defense of Stateless Territory

Rothbard (1999) argues that morality and utility require a guerrilla defense of libertarian societies, an assessment shared by many libertarian thinkers. This paper reviews the literature on guerrilla warfare to consider whether guerrilla forces alone, wielding small arms and light weapons, could successfully defend anarcho-capitalist territory. Despite the romance that surrounds them, the expert consensus is that guerrilla wars are fought only out of necessity by relatively weak powers. They are protracted wars of attrition fought on one’s own territory and as such are highly destructive of the defending homelands. If the enemy does not distinguish between military and civilian targets, as is likely to be the case in a war with anarchist citizen-soldiers, defeat is almost assured. Guerrillas are most effective as complements to regular forces rather than as substitutes, and a strictly guerrilla defense should be employed only as a last resort in the event of a collapse of the regular army or an inability to raise an army.

Ontogenic differences and sexual dimorphism of the locomotor performance in a nocturnal gecko, Tarentola mauritanica.

Locomotion performance in reptiles is deeply associated with habitat use, escape from predators, prey capture, and territory defense. As ectotherms, this trait in lizards is extremely sensitive to body temperature (BT). However, most studies rarely look at locomotion patterns in an ontogenic perspective. The Moorish gecko, Tarentola mauritanica, was used to investigate the possible effects of distinct BTs on the locomotor performance within juveniles and adults. Not surprisingly, adult individuals significantly outperform the juveniles in speed at every BT. Moreover, except in the 30-day-old juveniles, there is a general trend for an increase of speed with BT. The comparison of these speed values with the ones obtained for diurnal lizard species, corroborates the premise that because nocturnal species are subject to low thermal heterogeneity, little selection for behavioral thermoregulation, but strong selection for high performance at relatively cool temperatures are expected. Furthermore, the higher locomotor performance in adults at 29°C, roughly coincides with previously obtained preferred BTs. However, further studies need to be conducted to build the full performance curve, and to validate the existence of coadaption between behavioral thermoregulation and thermal sensitivity of physiological performance. Finally, this study has found that adult males run significantly faster than females at the highest BTs, highlighting the importance in understanding sex differences, and its potential to drive sex-specific behaviors, ecology, and ultimately fitness.

Problematic issues of the relationship between preparation for military service and preparation for national resistance

The purpose of the article is to determine the features of the relationship between preparation for military service and preparation for national resistance.
 The article establishes that the full-scale armed aggression of the Russian Federation against Ukraine has extremely exacerbated the issues of preparing Ukrainian citizens for military service. The reasons for this are that under the conditions of the legal regime of martial law, there is a need to staff military formations with motivated and trained personnel in a short time.
 Attention is focused on different aspects of understanding the essence of the studied types of training. Understanding preparation for national resistance is based primarily on subjective and target criteria (that is, who and for what purpose prepares). At the same time, preparation for military service includes predominantly structural criteria (i.e., the components that make up preparation for military service). The rationale is given that such a category as patriotic education is actually duplicated in the two definitions given.
 Attention is focused on the fact that territorial defense unequivocally includes military service in the Territorial Defense Forces, and the resistance movement and the preparation of citizens of Ukraine for national resistance can be carried out by both military personnel and civilians.
 The article establishes that, taking into account the interdisciplinarity of the problem of preparation for military service, one cannot but pay attention to the sectoral nature of the legal norms defining it. Taken together, the sectoral nature of relations in the area under study determines the differences between preparation for military service and preparation for national resistance.
 The conclusion is made that preparation for military service and preparation for national resistance are non-identical categories that partially overlap. The common component for them is "training for military service as part of the Territorial Defense Forces", as well as patriotic education.

Ways to improve legal regulation in the field of logistics of territorial defense of Ukraine

The article analyzes some legal acts in the field of logistics of territorial defense of Ukraine in the modern period, details their problematic issues and offers proposals for improving legal regulation in this area.
 Сurrently, Ukraine's defense sector is being actively reformed, but it does not yet meet today's requirements. Modern problems and challenges arising in the field of defense require fundamentally new scientifically sound approaches to the formation of the military organization of the state, the search for effective ways and mechanisms to protect national interests from real and potential threats of a military nature.
 The purpose of the article is to analyze the regulations in the field of logistics of territorial defense of Ukraine in the modern period and provide suggestions for improving legal regulation in this area.
 The experience of Switzerland and Israel deserves to be borrowed for the Institute of Local Territorial Defense of Ukraine, as these countries maintain armies that operate on the principles of universal conscription. All men under the age of 19 to 50 undergo military (alternative) service. A small part of the regular professional army maintains modern equipment and weapons, systematically trains a large number of reservists, who are kept on the principle of the police system and keep light small arms, ammunition and equipment.
 That is, these countries, due to national and historical features, built national regular armies to conduct defense, including territorial. However, they in a special way effectively keep 95-98% of the army personnel in reserve. These are countries with a total system of general military service, that’s relevant at present for Ukraine in point of view of Russian military aggression.
 As for the institute of local territorial defense in Ukraine, we propose to prescribe in the Law of Ukraine "On Fundamentals of National Resistance" certain provisions on social motivation and logistics of "voluntary assistants" for a quality information motive to protect the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Ukraine.
 In addition, we propose to understand the logistical support of the territorial defense of Ukraine as a set of measures to ensure all the necessary activities related to ensuring the combat capability of territorial defense entities for the effective implementation of the assigned tasks.

Problems of Transformation of Political Institutions After the War

The purpose of this article is to examine potential trends in the development of the political system of Ukraine after the end of the Russia-Ukraine war. Social changes always take place taking into account both subjective and objective circumstances. Currently the Ukrainian state relies on three pillars for further transformation of political institutions: 1) the Ukrainian value-mental tradition, 2) our own experience of democratic development in recent decades, 3) the political will to embrace European values. The latter means that Ukraine voluntarily undertook the obligation to meet the Copenhagen criteria, including to demonstrate the stability of institutions guaranteeing democracy, rule of law, human rights and protection of minorities. In the political circles of Ukraine, there is a "plan to restart the state", which boils down to structural changes in the system of public administration. Ukraine needs qualitative changes in the system of political relations, it is necessary to eliminate the contradiction between the form and content of political institutions. Archaic practices, nepotism, eastern methods of holding power by suppressing the opposition, corruption in the state apparatus and purely criminal practices are hidden behind the modern facade. War not only destroys, but also gives impulses for development through the mobilization of the nation's forces. We have a chance to restart political institutions and consolidate new structures born of war. We must pay attention to the institution of national resistance, which, through the movement of territorial defense and the volunteer movement, led to a situation of social filtering. As a result, strata of people crystallized, for whom the public good is higher than selfish interests. It is important not to lose the energy of the masses after the war and to use the patriotic movement to build political institutions.

Territorial Defense Forces in Poland After the Second World War

ObjectivesThe aim of the research was to solve the research problem contained in the question: What is the origin of the Territorial Defence Forces, what transformations accompanied this formation in the past and how is this type of troops prepared to combat military, paramilitary, non-military and hybrid threats?MethodsThe methods adopted in the research process include, above all, a critical analysis of a wide range of source materials, including monographs, scientific articles, legal acts, competence documents and information materials of the TDF Command. The theoretical methods characteristic of the security sciences, i.e. analysis, synthesis, comparison, inference and abstraction, were supplemented by participatory observation.ResultsThe research results confirmed the relationship between the state's defence strategy and the shape of the territorial defence formation. Financial conditions are of great importance in the creation of territorial defence but the need for an adequate response to new threats, including hybrid threats, is becoming an absolutely key determinant.ConclusionsThe conclusions from the research clearly indicate the legitimacy of keeping the Territorial Defence Forces within the state security system. The establishment of the Territorial Defence Forces in Poland after World War II was associated with the involvement of operational troops in the structures of the former Warsaw Pact. After the political transformation, the units of Territorial Defence Forces were significantly reduced until their complete decommissioning. The emergence of new threats, including hybrid threats from the Russian Federation, implied the need to rebuild the Territorial Defence Forces.

Interaction between National police and Territorial defense in public order: normative aspect.

Interaction between National police and Territorial defense in public order: normative aspect.

Breeding status shapes territoriality and vocalization patterns in spotted owls

Vocal territory defense can vary within a species due to many factors such as sex and breeding status, influencing territory size and thus population density across a landscape. Therefore, understanding what influences variation in territorial vocalizations can help to illuminate trade‐offs between territoriality and other life history demands, which benefits our general understanding of animal ecology as well as helps to inform emerging passive acoustic monitoring approaches. Here, we investigated how sex and breeding status affected territoriality and vocal behavior in the California spotted owl Strix occidentalis occidentalis in the Sierra Nevada, California, USA, using high‐resolution acoustic/GPS tags. We discovered that territorial vocal behavior was related to breeding status and to a lesser extent sex. Breeding owls with fledged young had a less diverse vocal repertoire, produced fewer and quieter territorial calls, and typically called only when close to their nest. Males were also more likely to engage in territorial calling than females. Breeding spotted owls also maintained significantly smaller territories – but utilized larger home ranges – than non‐breeding individuals. Our results suggest that breeding spotted owls may reduce their investment in territorial behaviors to mitigate the demands and risks associated with rearing young. Further, our results have important implications for the passive acoustic monitoring of spotted owls and, more broadly, highlight the utility of using multiple call types to detect species of interest.