Taguchi Method Research Articles

Tribo-performance analysis of HVOF sprayed Colmonoy-88 using the Taguchi method

The current investigation examines the wear performance of High-Velocity Oxygen Fuel coated Colmonoy-88 coating on SS 304. An L9 orthogonal array design based on the Taguchi fractional factorial method was used to create the erosive wear tests. The impact of three parameters, such as impact velocity (100, 120, and 140 m/s), angle of impact (30°, 60°, and 90°), and test duration (10, 15 and 20 min), on wear performance was investigated by analysis of variance. Results show that the impact angle is the most vital factor for mass loss in both SS 304 and Colmonoy-88, followed by impact velocity and time duration. It was revealed that the maximum wear takes place at 30° impact angle in both specimens. The outcomes of the XRD and EDS analysis show that the Colmonoy-88 has a high chromium content, which provides it with exceptional erosion resistance. The Colmonoy-88 wear mechanism involved inter-splat micro-cutting, lips, crack initiations, and craters caused by fly ash particles at varying impact angles.

Machine learning and design of experiments for optimizing laser-engraved micro fresnel lens mould

This research examines the application of Laser Engraving to produce micro Fresnel Lenses on aluminum plates, a novel application of this non-conventional machining method. The research explores the effects of the scan speed, laser power with number of cycles on the roundness deviation using a L9 orthogonal array. Multiple analytical methods, including the Taguchi method, Random Forest Algorithm with sensitivity analysis, are employed to optimize process and predict the outcomes. In this study, a thorough analysis of the fabrication of a micro Fresnel lens on Aluminum plate (10 mm × 10 mm × 2 mm) using fiber laser of wavelength 1064 nm is presented. The study finds that laser power has most significant effect on the roundness deviation, followed by the number of the cycles and scan speed. Scan Speed ranges from 500 to 700 mm s−1, the Power ranges from 25 to 35 Watts, and the Number of Cycles ranges from 100 to 200. Optimal conditions are identified as 700 mm/s scan speed, 25 W power, and 100 cycles. Microscopic analysis confirms roundness deviation under these conditions. Comparisons between analytical approaches and experimental results reveal that both the Taguchi method and Random Forest Algorithm align closely with experimental outcomes, with the Random Forest Algorithm showing slightly higher accuracy (6.18 percentage points closer to experimental results). This research addresses a gap in comparative studies evaluating traditional statistical methods against modern machine learning algorithms for process optimization in laser machining. It combines knowledge from optics, materials science, and laser machining, utilizing advanced methods and technologies that have only recently become accessible. The findings provide valuable insights for future applications of micro Fresnel lenses on aluminum plates and contribute to the understanding of laser engraving processes for precision optical components. Between the Random Forest Algorithm and the Taguchi method, Random Forest Algorithm fits more closely to the experimental result. Random Forest Algorithm prediction is closer to experimental result by about 6.18 percentage points compared to the Taguchi method prediction.

Sequential electro-coagulation and electro-Fenton processes for the treatment of textile wastewater.

Textile wastewater, laden with persistent dyes and non-biodegradable organics, poses a challenge for treatment in common effluent treatment plants (CETPs) using conventional methods. Pre-treatment of textile effluents is essential to ensure compatibility with CETPs. The present study employed three-dimensional (3D) aluminum and graphite electrodes for a sequential electro-coagulation and electro-Fenton (EC + EF) process. An experimental plan of 25 experiments was constructed using Taguchi method. The combination resulted in high removal efficiencies: 99.91% for color, 93.20% for chemical oxygen demand (COD), and 91.75% for total organic carbon (TOC) for the operating parameters; for EC, current density (J): 20 mA/cm2, time (t): 45 min, speed of rotation (N): 55 rpm; and for EF, current density (J): 25 mA/cm2, time (t): 50 min, iron concentration: 40 mg/L. Post-treatment, the wastewater exhibited an enhanced biodegradability index of 0.875, rendering it suitable for CETPs. There was an increase of 11% in the total energy consumption when energy spent during rotation and aeration at the time of EC and EF, respectively, were considered. This energy increases the cost and is not accounted for, in previous research. The energy consumption in kWh per g of COD removed at optimum condition for the hybrid treatment was 0.0314, which is lower than the energy consumption by other electrochemical processes employing plate electrodes. This indicates that 3D electrodes are more energy efficient than plate electrodes. PRACTITIONER POINTS: Hybrid electrochemical processes can be used as pre-treatment method for textile effluents. Three-dimensional electrodes improve removal rates with lower energy consumption. Significant color, COD, and TOC abatement were noted post-hybrid treatment of textile wastewater. Biodegradability of the textile effluent improves after the hybrid treatment.

Defect prediction and performance optimization of A413 vertical centrifugal castings through FEA-based simulation

This study benefits from advanced simulation based on finite element analysis, where finite element analysis possesses robust numerical algorithms to confront critical industrial challenges, including prediction and optimization techniques. The primary goal is to predict the location and quantity of shrinkage porosity and air entrainment, and to mitigate them by optimizing key casting process factors while considering the geometric effects. Virtual experiments designed through the Taguchi method, with three parameters (aspect ratio, pouring temperature, and mold rotation speed) at five levels each, were conducted using the finite element analysis software ProCAST. Post-experimentation, comprehensive data analyses, including signal-to-noise ratio and response surface methods, were employed to determine optimal conditions. Additionally, a sophisticated regression model was developed to clarify the complex relationship between key parameters and defect aspects. Optimal conditions to reduce shrinkage porosity were identified within parameter ranges of (50–75) rpm, (750–800) °C, and (1.75–2) aspect ratio. Similarly, optimal parameters to reduce air entrainment were identified as 150 rpm, 800 °C, and (1) aspect ratio.

Soft material drilling: A thermo-mechanical analysis of polyurethane foam for biomimetic bone scaffolds and optimization of process parameters using Taguchi method

Drilling is a widely employed technique in machining processes, crucial for efficient material removal. However, when applied to living tissues, its invasiveness must be carefully considered. This study investigates drilling processes on polyurethane foam blocks mimicking human bone mechanical properties. Various drill bit types (118° twist, 135° twist, spherical, and conical), drilling speeds (1000–1600 rpm), and feed rates (20–80 mm/min) were examined to assess temperature elevation during drilling. The Taguchi method facilitated systematic experiment design and optimization. Signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio and analysis of variance (ANOVA) identified significant drilling parameters affecting temperature rise. Validation was conducted through confirmation testing. Results indicate that standard twist drill bits with smaller point angles, lower drilling speeds, and higher feed rates effectively minimize temperature elevation during drilling.

Comparison and optimization of electrochemical and thermal performances of SOFC with different configurations of a metal foam flow field

The effects of different configurations of a metal foam flow field on current density and temperature gradient of a single channel solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) are investigated, and the overall performance of the optimum configuration is optimized. First, model A (conventional channel-rib flow field) is compared with three different configurations (i.e., model B with metal foam flow field only at anode, model C with that only at cathode, and model D at both). Although model C achieves the highest current density, its temperature is also fairly high. Although model B achieves the lowest temperature gradient, its current density is also fairly low. Model D performs well in both current density and temperature gradient. Then, the effect of electrode thickness and metal foam thickness on the performance of model D is investigated. The Ohmic polarization of model D remains almost constant with different electrode thicknesses, and its concentration polarization decreases as the electrode thickness decreases, which is totally different from the channel-rib flow field. Moreover, a thinner cathode causes lower activation overpotential, whereas a thinner anode causes higher activation overpotential. In general, a thick anode, a thin cathode, and thin metal foam can maximize the current density of model D, while a thick electrode and metal foam can always reduce the temperature gradient. Finally, the Taguchi method and gray relational analysis are used to optimize the current density and temperature gradient of model D. The current density of an optimized model is 3.27% higher than that of the original model with a temperature gradient of 9.05 K/cm.

Investigation of Co-Cr alloy layer prepared by laser metal deposition

Abstract Additive technologies are commonly used for component production and repair. Laser metal deposition is a type of additive technology that can create new bodies or add new components to existing parts. This technology enables continuous modification of the chemical and material properties of the deposited layer to suit the intended purpose. The alloying powder is dissolved and mixed in a small volume molten pool during laser deposition. The laser cladding process is known for its rapid heating and cooling rates. This can result in partial or non-existent dissolution of powder particles in the molten pool, or the formation of non-equilibrium microstructures that cannot be achieved through conventional metallurgical processes. As a result, this method can be used to create materials with unique combinations of properties. In this study, a Co-Cr coating layer was applied to a structural steel base plate. The parameters combination was generated using Taguchi’s experimental design. The relationship between the parameters and the properties of the prepared coating was evaluated using the Taguchi method.

Multi-objective optimization of Stinger PDC cutter breaking rock parameters under intrusion-cutting action using Taguchi-based gray relational analysis.

To enhance the efficiency of the Stinger Polycrystalline Diamond Compact (PDC) cutter in breaking hard rocks, this study focuses on optimizing the cutter intrusion-cutting rock breaking parameters. A numerical calculation model for the rotational breaking of granite by a Stinger PDC cutter was established. A comprehensive statistical examination was performed to assess the influence of various factors on intrusion ability (IA), tangential force (TF), and mechanical specific energy (MSE). The Taguchi method was used to determine the optimal settings for each factor, while analysis of variance was employed to assess the significance and relative impact of these factors on the target outcomes. In addition, the multi-objective function was optimized using the gray relational analysis method. The primary process parameters obtained for the various performance characteristics are the cone top angle (α), the cone top radius (r), the cutter diameter (d), the cutter back inclination angle (β), and weight on bit (P). The impact ratios of these parameters are 6.20%, 7.66%, 3.93%, 17.20%, and 65.02%, respectively. The optimal geometrical parameters are α = 60°, r = 2mm, and d = 15mm, while the optimal working parameters are β = 30° and P = 800 N. In the optimal case, IA and MSE were reduced by 55.335% and 15.809%, respectively, compared to the initial case. Despite a 15.706% increase in TF, the overall GRG increased for all three evaluation criteria, with an overall increase in efficiency of 18.229%. The results of this paper can provide guidance for the design of Stinger cutter PDC drill bits.

Energy and exergy optimization of Kalina Cycle System-34 with detailed analysis of cycle parameters

This study proposes a novel methodology for optimizing the Kalina Cycle System-34, providing new insights into the existing literature on the cycle. The research highlights the cycle's key variables and identifies the most critical parameters that require improvement while proposing a practical and effective optimization method. The effects of parameters on thermal and exergy efficiency were quantified using Taguchi and ANOVA methods. The study focuses on critical parameters such as evaporator outlet temperature, turbine inlet pressure, ammonia concentration, turbine efficiency, and pump efficiency. The optimal values of these parameters were determined within specified ranges. Furthermore, the study employed the L25 orthogonal array to create case scenarios that reduced the computational cost of the Kalina cycle. The best-case scenario was not included in the 25 cases in the orthogonal array, which significantly reduced computational costs. The results showed that the system's thermal efficiency increased to 16.2 %, and exergy efficiency increased to 27.8 %, with the case conditions for the best case being an evaporator outlet temperature of 120 °C, ammonia concentration of 0.9, turbine inlet pressure of 40 bar, turbine efficiency of 0.9, and pump efficiency of 0.8.

Treatment of pulp and paper mill effluent through combined aerobic and anaerobic suspended fixed-bed bioreactor.

This study explored using ultrafiltration (UF) membranes to treat pulp and paper mill wastewater, implementing a novel Taguchi experimental design to optimize operating conditions for pollutant removal and minimal membrane fouling. Researchers examined four factors: pH, temperature, transmembrane pressure, and volume reduction factor (VRF), each at three levels. Optimal conditions (pH10, 25°C, 6bar, VRF 3) led to a 35% reduction in flux due to fouling and high pollutant rejections: total hardness (83%), sulfate (97%), spectral absorption coefficient (SAC254) (95%), and chemical oxygen demand (COD) (89%). Conductivity had a lower rejection rate of 50%. Advanced imaging techniques like atomic force microscopy (AFM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed reduced membrane fouling under these conditions. The Taguchi method effectively identified optimal conditions, significantly improving wastewater treatment efficiency and promoting environmental sustainability in the pulp and paper industry. PRACTITIONER POINTS: This study optimized UF membrane conditions for pulp and paper mill wastewater, reducing fouling and enhancing pollutant removal, offering practical strategies for industrial treatment. AFM and SEM provided key insights into membrane fouling and mitigation, promoting real-time diagnosis and optimization for enhanced treatment efficiency. Prioritizing anaerobic fixed-bed systems in wastewater treatment is beneficial for achieving high COD removal efficiency. Optimizing hydraulic retention time (HRT) in these systems can further improve their overall effectiveness and sustainability.

Microbial Fuel Cell: Optimizing Graphene-Sponge Anode Thickness and Chamber pH Using Taguchi Experimental Method

The rapid consumption of fossil fuels has led to calls to switch from non-renewable to renewable energy sources. Microbial fuel cells are a promising technology that simultaneously treats wastewater and produces power. This study used the Taguchi Experimental method to optimize anode thickness and pH to obtain the maximum power density of an air-cathode microbial fuel cell (ACMFC). The graphene-sponge (G-S) anode thickness and chamber pH were selected as operating parameters, with their corresponding levels. The L9 orthogonal array was chosen for the experimental design. According to the Taguchi Method, the optimum G-S anode thickness and chamber pH were determined to be 1.0 cm and 8.0, respectively. A confirmatory run was performed under these optimum conditions, and the maximum power density observed was 707.75 mW·m−3. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to identify the percentage contributions of the operating parameters to the process, which were found to be 30.66% for pH and 69.34% for anode thickness.

Optimization of synthesis and characterization of novel sodium alginate/montmorillonite/zinc oxide bionanocomposite as an antibacterial agent against Streptococcus mutans

Due to the escalating bacterial resistance, the objective of the current investigation was to discover the most favorable condition for the fabrication of a novel bionanocomposite consisting of sodium alginate, montmorillonite, and ZnO, possessing the greatest degree of antibacterial efficacy. To determine the optimal synthesis conditions for nanocomposite with the most favorable antimicrobial activity, a total of nine experiments were devised via the Taguchi methodology. The studied nanocomposites were produced using the in situ method. The antibacterial efficacy of the synthesized nanocomposites was assessed against Streptococcus mutans through the utilization of the colony-forming unit methodology. The nanocomposites synthesized, consisting of 60 mg/mL alginate, 0.6 mg/mL montmorillonite, and 6 mg/mL ZnO, exhibited the most potent antibacterial activity. The greatest effect on bacterial viability was related to the ZnO factor. The synthesis of alginate/MMT/ZnO nanocomposites with desirable conditions was confirmed using various analyses. This study showed that alginate/MMT/ZnO nanocomposite has high performance under optimal conditions, and applying optimal levels of components improves the antibacterial properties of the synthesized nanocomposite.

Emerging eco-friendly fiber-reinforced concrete with shaped synthetic aggregates using Taguchi grey relational analysis and utility concept

The present study assessed the applicability of employing Taguchi-based Grey relational analysis (T-GRA) and the Taguchi approach combined with the utility concept (T-UC) for enhancing the mix design parameters of fiber-reinforced synthetic aggregate concrete (FRSAC). Cement was supplemented with binders such as ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS), metakaolin (MK), and lime powder (LP). The optimized mix proportion of FRSAC was determined to enhance the fresh and mechanical performance. Furthermore, this investigation used two weighting approaches: equally weighted and maximum deviation methods. An established L16 (45) Taguchi orthogonal array was used with five different factors, namely, cement replacement (40 %, 50 %, 60 % and 70 %), binder content (B1, B2, B3, B4), water-to-cement ratio (0.31, 0.32, 0.33, 0.34), fiber dosage (0.1 %, 0.2 %, 0.3 % and 0.4 %), and synthetic aggregate replacement (25 %, 50 %, 75 %, and 100 %) were employed to design the experiments. Then, T-GRA and T-UC were used to determine the optimum mix proportions for five response parameters: workability, compressive strength, split tensile strength, elastic modulus, and impact ductility index. Results indicated that the two methods, GRA and UC, can be successfully integrated with the Taguchi method to derive the optimized FRSAC mixture. Confirmation experiments were performed after determining the optimum mix design parameters, including cement replacement of 60 %, binder content of B4, the water-to-cement ratio of 0.34, fiber dosage of 0.1 %, and synthetic aggregate replacement of 75 %. The optimum FRSAC mix was examined for its fresh (workability) and hardened (compressive strength, split tensile strength, elastic modulus, impact ductility index) properties.

A multi-objective dynamical artificial bee colony for energy-efficient fuzzy hybrid flow shop scheduling with batch processing machines

Energy-efficient hybrid flow shop scheduling problem (EHFSP) with batch processing machines (BPMs) is rarely considered, let alone EHFSP with BPMs and uncertainty. In this study, an energy-efficient fuzzy hybrid flow shop scheduling problem (EFHFSP) with BPMs at a middle stage and no precedence between some stages is solved, and a multi-objective dynamical artificial bee colony algorithm (MODABC) is presented to simultaneously minimize fuzzy makespan and total fuzzy energy consumption. To produce high quality solutions, a swarm decision is used to dynamically determine the employed bee swarm and onlooker bee swarm, a dynamical employed bee phase is implemented, and an onlooker bee phase with adaptive communication is given. The diversity reinforcement strategy and an adaptive scout phase are also adopted. Extensive experiments are conducted, and the optimal combination of key parameters for the proposed algorithm is determined by the Taguchi method. The computational results demonstrate that the new strategies of MODABC are effective, and MODABC is very competitive in solving the considered EFHFSP.

Performance investigation of punching operation to optimize the over cut of circular hole using Design of Experiment Technique “Taguchi Method”

Current research investigates the optimization of over-cut in circular hole punching operations using a CNC turret punching machine. The study employs the Design of Experiment (DOE) technique, specifically the Taguchi method, to systematically analyze the influence of three critical factors: cutting load, hit rate, and material type. The factors were varied across three levels: cutting load (10, 12, and 14 kN), hit rate (100, 150, and 200 punches per minute), and materials (EN-8, EN-24, and EN-31). An L9 orthogonal array was used to design the experimental runs, resulting in nine unique combinations to explore the effects on over-cut (OC). Over-Cut (OC) was the key response parameter, measured using a microscopic testing machine to capture high-resolution images of the punched holes. ImageJ software was employed for image processing to accurately assess the deviations. The data were analyzed using Minitab software, focusing on signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio analysis with the criterion "smaller is better." The S/N ratio results indicated that the cutting load had the most significant impact on minimizing dimensional deviation, followed by material type and hit rate. The study revealed that the lowest dimensional deviation was achieved at a cutting load of 10 kN, hit rate of 200 punches per minute, and using EN-8 material. The mean effect and S/N ratio plots further confirmed that increasing the cutting load generally led to higher over-cut values, while higher hit rates improved precision. Interaction plots indicated that EN-31 material performed robustly across varying conditions, making it a suitable choice for diverse operational settings. ANOVA analysis supported these findings, with cutting load contributing the most to the variability in OC, followed by material type and hit rate. Current study provides valuable insights into the optimization of punching parameters to achieve minimal over-cut and enhance machining accuracy. The findings underscore the importance of selecting appropriate levels of cutting load, hit rate, and material type to optimize the performance of CNC punching operations.

Development of fuzzy inference engine for prediction of mechanical properties in TIG-welded Al-65,032 alloy through reduced experimentation using Taguchi method

Development of fuzzy inference engine for prediction of mechanical properties in TIG-welded Al-65,032 alloy through reduced experimentation using Taguchi method

Experimental investigation on the thermal enhancement of spherical macro-encapsulated phase change material assisted soil heat accumulators

Reserved cavities during construction have the potential to serve as the space to efficiently harness shallow geothermal energy resources in light of the underground spaces' rapid expansion. Earth-air heat exchanger technology is an effective way among all the technologies. However, as the heat storage capacity of the surrounding soil gradually diminishes due to the long-term operation of the system, it is recommended to incorporate phase change materials (PCMs) with a stabilized heat storage capacity to improve the overall thermal performance of the system. This research specifically recommends back-filling macro-encapsulated PCMs measuring 15–25 mm in order to prevent backfill contamination caused by PCM leakage. The shells and cores of the PCMs are polypropylene spheres and n-heptadecane. Different volume proportions of macro-encapsulated PCMs are used in the design of modified soil accumulators. 27 groups of orthogonal array experimental tables were made using the Taguchi method to test the improved heat accumulator's performance with different heating sources. According to the results, adding PCMs causes the peak temperature to change and increases overall energy storage by 7.2 %. The most significant factor is the soil moisture content, which accounts for 62.47 % of the overall impact of the PCM's heat storage ratio and total heat storage capacity. With a contribution of 20.41 %, the PCM ratio is ranked second. Furthermore, optimization options for the primary parameters that impact the total heat storage and heat storage ratio of the PCM are offered. This paper offers references for the potential use of the PCM-assisted EAHE system design in real-world engineering applications.

Who are the best contributors? Designing a multimodal science communication interface based on the ECM, TAM and the Taguchi methods

Science communication conducted through mobile devices and mobile applications is an efficient and widespread phenomenon that requires communicators and design practitioners to further develop suitable design elements and strategies for such platforms. The effective application of multimodal or multisensory design in interfaces provides users with rich experiences. However, there is a lack of guiding recommendations for user interface design in the citizen science community. This study investigated factors affecting users’ perceptions and behavioral intentions toward multimodal scientific communication interface designs and identified the optimal combinations of such factors for such designs. Through a focus group, we defined three design dimensions of a science communication interface: visual, auditory, and haptic. An online experiment involving 916 participants was then conducted and integrated the technology acceptance model, expectation–confirmation model, and Taguchi method to examine the hierarchical combinations with the greatest influence in each dimension. The results indicated that interface design combinations primarily focusing on visual elements, with auditory and haptic as secondary elements, can serve as effective tools for science communication. Moreover, layout, color tones, vibration intensity, and sound volume significantly affected users’ perceptions and behavioral intentions. As one of the few studies using the Taguchi method to explore the design of science communication interfaces, the present findings enrich the multimodal theory from the perspectives of design and communication, highlighting its value in science communication. This paper simultaneously provides insights into how to select and combine multimodal design elements in science communication interfaces, demonstrating the potential of such designs to affect a user perception, satisfaction, confirmation, and continued usage intention.

Optimizing a vertical axis wind turbine with helical blades: Application of 3D CFD and Taguchi method

Vertical axis wind turbines (VAWT) with helical blades are being interested in urban areas due to the low dependency on the wind direction and also due to low noise production. In spite of good self-starting and smooth operation as the advantages of this type of turbine, its optimizing has not been reported in literature yet and is the subject of this research. A primary investigation by 3D computational fluid dynamics (CFD) to simulate the air flow about the above type of VAWT in the first step showed the importance of three design variables of tip speed ratio, helical angle, and airfoil chord length. However, in the second step, CFD runs were very time consuming and costly. For considering five values for each design variable, 53=125 cases had to be simulated by 3D CFD. Thus, by the use of Taguchi method and with definition of an orthogonal array named L-25, the number of required 3D CFD simulations reduced from 125 to 25. Then, the optimum values of variables were obtained as 1.33 for the tip speed ratio, 30 degrees for the helical angle, and 0.4 m for the airfoil chord length. At the optimum point, the average power coefficient increased to 0.17542. The presented research is novel for optimizing VAWT with helical blades.

Using the Taguchi Method and Grey Relational Analysis to Optimize Ventilation Systems for Rural Outdoor Toilets in the Post-Pandemic Era

This study addresses the issue of poor air quality and thermal comfort in rural outdoor toilets by proposing a ventilation system powered by a building-applied photovoltaic (BAPV) roof. A numerical model is established and validated through comparison with the literature and experimental data. Based on a consensus, four influential variables, namely, inlet position, outlet height, supply air temperature, and ventilation rate, are selected for optimization to achieve multiple objectives: reduction in ammonia concentration, a predicted mean vote (PMV) value of 0, minimization of age of air, and energy consumption. The present study represents a pioneering effort in integrating the Taguchi method, computational fluid dynamics (CFD), and grey relational analysis to concurrently optimize the influential variables for outdoor toilet ventilation systems through design and simulation. The results indicate that all four variables exhibit nearly equal importance. Ventilation rate demonstrates a dominant effect on ammonia concentration and significantly impacts the age of air and energy consumption, while supply air temperature noticeably influences PMV. The optimal scheme features an inlet at center top position, an outlet height of 0.2 m, a supply air temperature of 12 °C and a ventilation rate of 20 times/h. This scheme improves ammonia concentration by 18.9%, PMV by 6.8%, and age of air by 30.0% at a height of 0.5 m, while achieving respective improvements by 18.9%, 5.5%, and 22.2% at a height of 1.5 m. The BAPV roof system generates an annual electricity output of 582.02 kWh, which covers the energy consumption of 358.1 kWh for toilet ventilation, achieving self-sufficiency. This study aims to develop a zero-carbon solution for outdoor toilets that provides a safe, comfortable, and sanitary environment.