Syntax Of Language Research Articles

Entropy-based syntactic tree analysis for text classification: a novel approach to distinguishing between original and translated Chinese texts

Abstract This research focuses on classifying translated and non-translated Chinese texts by analyzing syntactic rule features, using an integrated approach of machine learning and entropy analysis. The methodology employs information entropy to gauge the complexity of syntactic rules in both text types. The methodology is based on the concept of information entropy, which serves as a quantitative measure for the complexity inherent in syntactic rules as manifested from tree-based annotations. The goal of the study is to explore whether translated Chinese texts demonstrate syntactic characteristics that are significantly different from those of non-translated texts, thereby permitting a reliable classification between the two. To do this, the research calculates information entropy values for syntactic rules in two comparable corpora, one of translated and the other of non-translated Chinese texts. Then, various machine learning models are applied to these entropy metrics to identify any significant differences between the two groups. The results show significant differences in the syntactic structures. Translated texts have a higher degree of entropy, indicating more complex syntactic constructs compared to non-translated texts. These findings contribute to our understanding of the effect of translation on language syntax, with implications for text classification and translation studies.

Performance of three commercially available large language models and one locally fine-tuned model at preparing formal letters to appeal medical insurance denials of radiotherapy services.

e13630 Background: As many as 60% of prior authorization requests are denied, yet coverage approval occurs for more than 60% of appeals for some therapies. Appeal processes encumber providers and increase burnout, but large language models (LLMs) may aid providers by drafting appeal letters. We evaluated LLM performance at this task for radiotherapy denials. Methods: Three commercially accessible LLMs were evaluated: generative pre-trained transformer 3.5 (GPT3.5), GPT4, and GPT4+web with internet search capacity (OpenAI, Inc., San Francisco, CA). A fourth LLM, GPT3.5-FT, was developed by fine-tuning GPT3.5 in a HIPAA-complaint local environment. The fine-tuning training data comprised 53 insurance denial appeal letters prepared by radiation oncologists and paired prompts describing the clinical history and appeal intent. Training data were enriched in appeal letters for proton radiotherapy, stereotactic body radiotherapy, and image-guided radiotherapy for myriad clinical scenarios. Twenty prompts, each requesting a letter for a simulated patient history, were programmatically presented to the LLMs. Three radiation oncologists, who were blinded to the LLM source, scored letter outputs across four domains: language syntax and semantics, clinical detail inclusion, clinical reasoning validity, and overall readiness for insurer submission. Additionally, one radiation oncologist scored the authenticity and relevance of literature sources cited in output letters, which were requested by several test prompts. Interobserver agreement between radiation oncologist scores was determined by Cohen’s kappa coefficient. Scores were compared between LLMs with non-parametric statistical tests. Results: Agreement between radiation oncologists’ scores was moderate-to-excellent across all domains (median κ = 0.68, minimum κ = 0.41). GPT3.5, GPT4, and GPT4+web drafted letters that, by mode average, were semantically and syntactically clear, included all provided clinical history without confabulation, clinically reasoned with few necessary revisions, and overall were submissible to an insurer with minor revisions. GPT4 and GPT4+web clinically reasoned better than GPT3.5 (p values < 0.001). In contrast, GPT3.5-FT performance was inferior to other LLMs across all domains (p values < 0.001). LLMs were poor at identifying, citing, and summarizing relevant literature unless provided in the prompt. Conclusions: LLMs can draft insurance appeal letters for radiotherapy services that require few revisions yet are poor at referencing relevant literature. Contrary to our hypothesis, fine-tuning with data from our department compromised LLM performance.

RENDERING AL-MAFUL AL-MUTLAQ IN QURANIC TRANSLATION:A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THREE MALAY VERSIONS

The maintenance or modification of the language style of a source text in its translated version is one of the aspects that is often observed in the study of style analysis or translation strategy. Al-Quran as a holy book that is rich and loaded with its own styles of language has caused polemics among scholars of translation of sacred texts from time to time such as differences of opinion and approach between them regarding strategies, methods, styles or techniques of translating the diversity of language styles of this holy book of all Muslims. Al-Maful al-Mutlaq which is one of the aspects of language style in the syntax of the Arabic language has seen a variety of strategies and ways of translation in its translation versions. Starting from that, this study aims to identify the holy verses of the Quran that contain the language style of al-Maful al-Mutlaq, analyze the verses containing al-Maful al-Mutlaq from morphological and syntactic aspects.and compare the translation strategies used when translating the three types of al-Maful al-Mutlaqin the three versions of the Malay translation of the Quran which is the sample of this study Terjemahan Al-Hidayah, Terjemahan Pimpinan Ar-Rahman Kepada Pengertian Al-Quran and Terjemahan Kompleks Percetakan al-Quran Raja Fahad. This study uses a qualitative approach by means of contrastive content analysis by comparing the syntax of Arabic and Malay regarding the concept and structure of al-Maful al-Mutlaq through the texts of selected verses of the Holy Quran. This study finally concludes that there are several discourse markers used by translators when translating al-Maful al-Mutlaq into Malay. This study is expected to be able to provide understanding and guidance to students of the Quranic language to recognize the style and strategy of translating al-Maful al-Mutlaq found in the Quran into the Malay language.

Robustness of the random language model.

The random language model [Phys. Rev. Lett. 122, 128301 (2019)0031-900710.1103/PhysRevLett.122.128301] is an ensemble of stochastic context-free grammars, quantifying the syntax of human and computer languages. The model suggests a simple picture of first-language learning as a type of annealing in the vast space of potential languages. In its simplest formulation, it implies a single continuous transition to grammatical syntax, at which the symmetry among potential words and categories is spontaneously broken. Here this picture is scrutinized by considering its robustness against extensions of the original model, and trajectories through parameter space different from those originally considered. It is shown here that (i) the scenario is robust to explicit symmetry breaking, an inevitable component of learning in the real world, and (ii) the transition to grammatical syntax can be encountered by fixing the deep (hidden) structure while varying the surface (observable) properties. It is also argued that the transition becomes a sharp thermodynamic transition in an idealized limit. Moreover, comparison with human data on the clustering coefficient of syntax networks suggests that the observed transition is equivalent to that normally experienced by children at age 24 months. The results are discussed in light of the theory of first-language acquisition in linguistics, and recent successes in machine learning.

Complexity trade-off in morphosyntactic module: suggestions from Japanese dialects

Abstract Using the GiNZA v4 natural language processing library, this study examines the case marking richness and word order flexibility in Japanese dialects across 47 regions to investigate the dynamic self-adaptation within the language subsystem, specifically morphology and syntax. Case marking richness is evaluated using the moving-average mean size of paradigm, while word order flexibility is assessed through entropy. The findings reveal a positive correlation between case marking richness and word order flexibility, providing empirical support for the “complexity trade-off hypothesis”. Leveraging the distinct morphosyntactic features inherent in dialects, this study proposes a hypothesis for categorizing Japanese dialects.

Natural language syntax complies with the free-energy principle

Natural language syntax yields an unbounded array of hierarchically structured expressions. We claim that these are used in the service of active inference in accord with the free-energy principle (FEP). While conceptual advances alongside modelling and simulation work have attempted to connect speech segmentation and linguistic communication with the FEP, we extend this program to the underlying computations responsible for generating syntactic objects. We argue that recently proposed principles of economy in language design—such as “minimal search” criteria from theoretical syntax—adhere to the FEP. This affords a greater degree of explanatory power to the FEP—with respect to higher language functions—and offers linguistics a grounding in first principles with respect to computability. While we mostly focus on building new principled conceptual relations between syntax and the FEP, we also show through a sample of preliminary examples how both tree-geometric depth and a Kolmogorov complexity estimate (recruiting a Lempel–Ziv compression algorithm) can be used to accurately predict legal operations on syntactic workspaces, directly in line with formulations of variational free energy minimization. This is used to motivate a general principle of language design that we term Turing–Chomsky Compression (TCC). We use TCC to align concerns of linguists with the normative account of self-organization furnished by the FEP, by marshalling evidence from theoretical linguistics and psycholinguistics to ground core principles of efficient syntactic computation within active inference.

No evidence for language syntax in songbird vocalizations.

No evidence for language syntax in songbird vocalizations.

Semantic requirements construction using ontologies and boilerplates

This paper presents a combination of an ontology and boilerplates, which are requirements templates for the syntactic structure of individual requirements that try to alleviate the problem of ambiguity caused using natural language and make it easier for inexperienced engineers to create requirements. However, still the use of boilerplates restricts the use of natural language only syntactically and not semantically. Boilerplates consists of fixed and attributes elements. Using ontologies, restricts the vocabulary of the words used in the requirements boilerplates to entities, their properties and entity relationships that are semantically meaningful to the application domain, leading thus to fewer errors. In this work we combine the advantages of boilerplates and ontologies. Usually, the attributes of boilerplates are completed with the help of the ontology. The contribution of this paper is that the whole boilerplates are stored in the ontology, based on the fact that RDF triples have similar syntax to the boilerplate syntax, so that attributes and fixed elements are part of the ontology. This combination helps to construct semantically and syntactically correct requirements. The contribution and novelty of our method is that we exploit the natural language syntax of boilerplates mapping them to Resource Description Framework triples which have also a linguistic nature. In this paper we created and present the development of a domain-specific ontology as well as a minimal set of boilerplates for a specific application domain, namely that of engineering software for an ATM, while maintaining flexibility on the one hand and generality on the other.

The linguistic analysis of english transport terminology

The linguistic analysis of English transport terminology offers a comprehensive examination of the language used to describe various aspects of transportation. This research delves into the morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics of transportation-related language, exploring how words are formed, structured, interpreted, and used in communication within the transport sector. This article provides an overview of the linguistic analysis of English transport terminology’, highlighting its significance in understanding how language shapes and reflects out-perceptions, practices, and policies in the field of transportation.

Distributed Sensitivity to Syntax and Semantics throughout the Language Network.

Human language is expressive because it is compositional: The meaning of a sentence (semantics) can be inferred from its structure (syntax). It is commonly believed that language syntax and semantics are processed by distinct brain regions. Here, we revisit this claim using precision fMRI methods to capture separation or overlap of function in the brains of individual participants. Contrary to prior claims, we find distributed sensitivity to both syntax and semantics throughout a broad frontotemporal brain network. Our results join a growing body of evidence for an integrated network for language in the human brain within which internal specialization is primarily a matter of degree rather than kind, in contrast with influential proposals that advocate distinct specialization of different brain areas for different types of linguistic functions.

Pragmatic Communication Deficit and Functional Outcome in Patients with Right- and Left-Brain Damage: A Pilot Study.

Pragmatic communication abilities refer to the capacity to use language in a social context. Despite evidence to the contrary, the left cerebral hemisphere of the majority of right handers has been considered exclusively specialized for control of language phonology, syntax and semantics, whereas the right hemisphere has been specialized for the control of language pragmatics. Many studies have shown the non-exclusivity of the left hemisphere for language skills. Communication deficits observed in these studies for patients with right hemisphere damage confirmed the necessity for integrity of the right hemisphere across a number of language components. The aim of this study is to investigate the specific role of the right and left hemispheres across several aspects of communication deficits, with particular attention given to the influence of these deficits on functional outcome. The second aim is to characterize possible correlations between pragmatic and other cognitive deficits. We evaluated 22 patients, 15 with left- and 7 with right-brain ischemic or hemorrhagic damage, using cognitive, pragmatic and language tests. We deployed the Right Hemisphere Language Battery-Santa Lucia and Montreal d'Evaluation de la Communication to assess pragmatic abilities. The results showed no statistically significant differences between patients with left- and right-brain damage, highlighting the importance of integration between the two hemispheres in the communication process. Multiple significant correlations were found between pragmatic abilities and cognitive tests assessing global cognitive functioning, pantomime expression and comprehension. Pragmatic deficits were also shown to correlate with functional cognitive outcome. It is important to assess pragmatic abilities in patients with cognitive deficits after both left and right stroke for tailoring neuropsychological intervention to mitigate pragmatic disabilities in functional outcomes.

SENTENCE AS AN OBJECT OF COMPARATIVE LINGUISTICS

The article shows that the sentence is recognized as a fundamental unit of language in comparative linguistics. This structural-syntactic phenomenon exists in a static state in the language system. It is pointed out that an utterance, being a dynamic phenomenon realized in speech, is not a subject of study in comparative linguistics. The sentence, and with it the language's syntax, is recognized as the indispensable linguistic structure with which the comparative study of two or more unrelated languages should begin. The position that the sentence, modality, and proposition constitute the main element of natural language is taken into account. It is concluded that the sentence unit is regarded as the most significant object for comparative linguistics since it is a necessary component of a language system.

Reconsidering Python Syntax to Enhance Programming Productivity

Abstract: Data analytics plays a crucial role in today's society across various domains, driven by technological advancements and exponential data growth. Handling large-scale data poses a challenge due to increased computational and storage requirements. The heterogeneity of tasks in data analytics programming languages complicates integration and interaction, necessitating effective cross-language integration for productivity and extended capabilities. This paper proposes a generalized interpreter accepting various language syntaxes, primarily based on Python and MATLAB, with comparisons to R and Julia. Findings reveal Python's beginner-friendly learning curve and rich resources, Julia's high-performance computing, MATLAB’s numerical prowess and specialized toolbox, and Python and R's focus on flexibility. Both Python and R boast active communities, while Python offers extensive portability, and Julia emphasizes interoperability. Despite syntactic differences, a common interpreter offers flexibility and efficiency, benefiting developers by enabling language selection based on project needs. Challenges can be mitigated through good design and technical solutions. Encouragement for research and innovation in universal interpreter development fosters collaboration, enhancing opportunities in data analysis and scientific computing. Active participation from developers and researchers is encouraged for continual improvement and advancement in the field.

Model checking programs in process-oriented IEC 61131-3 Structured Text

The process-oriented programming is a paradigm based on the process concept where each process is a concurrent finite state machine inside. The paradigm is intended for PLC (programmable logic controllers) developers to write Industry 4.0-enabled software. The poST language is a promising process-oriented extension of the IEC 61131-3 Structured Text (ST) language designed to provide a conceptual consistency of the PLC source code with technological description of the process under control. This language combines the advantages of FSM-based programming with the standard syntax of the ST language. We propose transformational semantics of poST providing rules for translation of poST language statements to Promela — the input language of the SPIN model checker. Following these semantic rules, our Xtext-based translator outputs a Promela model for the poST program. Our contribution is the poST transformational semantics and the method for automatic generation of the Promela code from poST control programs. The resulting Promela program is ready to be verified with SPIN model checker against linear temporal logic requirements to the source poST program. In the paper we provide an overview of related work, as well as a brief description of the poST and Promela languages. Further, the Promela poST translation rules cover control flow statements, process creation and state management constructs, and timeout management. Then we define service processes for modeling the external environment and managing high-level LTL specifications. Then we present the main ideas of implementing the translator poST to Promela. We also illustrate our approach using the example of a system for managing electricity consumption and production, including renewable sources.

Translation, Cultural Adaption, and Linguistic Validation of the Norwegian Wound-QoL Questionnaire

Background and Purpose:A sound translation is complex but necessary to provide a valid patient-reported questionnaire. The aim of this study was therefore to translate, culturally adapt, and linguistically validate the 17-item Wound-Quality of Life (Wound-QoL) questionnaire from English to Norwegian.Methods:For translation and cultural adaption of the Wound-QoL, we followed the methods described by the ISPOR—The Professional Society for Health Economics and Outcomes Research (formerly, the International Society for Pharmacoeconomics and Outcome Research), Messaging Application Programming Interface Research Institute, and recommendations from literature reviews.Results:Differences in the language semantics and syntax caused challenges in the translation. The cognitive debriefing interviews revealed some irrelevant items related to personal preferences.Conclusions:This study provides a questionnaire that can improve the quality of clinical care and promote research and valuable knowledge to other researchers translating the Wound-QoL and similar questionnaires.

Can You Give Me a Lift?

Static Analysis (SA) is the practice of examining computer program source code for errors or vulnerabilities outside the compiler’s capabilities. To carry out Static Analysis on computer programs, various tools exist that parse and examine each line for known issues. These tools do not compile the program, nor do they run the program. Instead, they analyse the source code directly and infer properties about the program without executing it - thus “static” analysis. Static analysis is not new. Early UNIX contained a program called “lint” for static analysis; a tool that has now existed since the late 1970s (Johnson 1978). Increasingly, however, modern static analysis practices indicate a more focused intent; find cybersecurity weaknesses. At the 22nd European Conference on Cyber Warfare and Security, the authors presented the background of Intermediate Representations (IRs) and described how this “middleware” representation can be utilized for static analysis of source code for cybersecurity weaknesses. By examining an IR, potential flaws in the source code can be located. When utilizing the IR as opposed to the original high-level language, the static analysis process becomes independent of the original source language; if several languages such as C, Rust, and others all compile into the same IR, static analysis of the IR allows the analysis process to no longer be tied to the high-level language grammar or syntax. The previous paper implemented a literature survey of available IR analysis tools to discover prior work; the authors have subsequently advanced the research and are actively using an IR framework, LLVM, for vulnerability analysis. In this research, source code in a high-level language is first compiled to LLVM and the resulting IR is used for analysis. This approach uses a “code-to-IR” SA analysis preparation paradigm. At the same time, there is the potential for binary “lifters” to be used. These tools “lift” an executable program – binary machine instructions – back to LLVM. In this way, the paradigm can also be reversed such that static analysis of LLVM can be performed on source code compiled into LLVM, or on executable programs in the field that are “lifted”. This begs: how effective are these “lifters”? In this work, the authors present experiences in installation and operation of several binary “lifters” available as open-source projects. Some are supported better than others, some operate better than others, and some don’t operate at all. Those that do lead to the follow-up: Is the “lifted” code suitable for static analysis, or is it too obfuscated relative to the original program? This paper describes just that – our efforts and results in locating a binary “lifter” suitable for bringing executable program test cases back to LLVM for analysis by the cybersecurity vulnerability tool concurrently under development.

К вопросу о синтаксическом статусе субстантивов в русских предложениях тождества

A multi aspect study of bisubstantive sentences of characterizing semantics is necessary to solve complex problems of syntactic analysis. The grammatical specificity of bisubstantial sentences lies in the morphological identity of the predicative minimum. The study has theoretical and practical tasks: identify the structural, semantic and communicative organization of sentences, propose methodological recommendations for syntactic analysis of sentences. The material of the study is modern literature. Analytical and descriptive methods are used to analyze the linguistic material. The problems of teaching syntactic analysis of sentences are identified through experimental methods. The main conclusions of the study: syntactic analysis of bisubstantial sentences should consist of traditional structural and semantic parameters, roles and functions in the semantic structure and communicative organization of a sentence, take into account context, stylistic and pragmatic factors. Syntactic phenomena should be studied from the functional position at all stages and levels of teaching syntax of the modern Russian language.

Syncopation as structure bootstrapping: the role of asymmetry in rhythm and language.

Syncopation - the occurrence of a musical event on a metrically weak position preceding a rest on a metrically strong position - represents an important challenge in the study of the mapping between rhythm and meter. In this contribution, we present the hypothesis that syncopation is an effective strategy to elicit the bootstrapping of a multi-layered, hierarchically organized metric structure from a linear rhythmic surface. The hypothesis is inspired by a parallel with the problem of linearization in natural language syntax, which is the problem of how hierarchically organized phrase-structure markers are mapped onto linear sequences of words. The hypothesis has important consequences for the role of meter in music perception and cognition and, more particularly, for its role in the relationship between rhythm and bodily entrainment.

Revisiting technology-assisted language learning affordances for language components: a decade survey

ABSTRACT Given the important technology-assisted language learning (TALL)-empowered affordances, a comprehensive understanding of how these TALL tools facilitate learning across different language components, e.g., phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics, could not only present the panoramic scenery of the subject matter but also inform pedagogy for applied linguistics researchers and practitioners. Despite the increasing attention being paid to the affordances of a particular TALL platform, there is still a lack of more holistic research practice to the affordances for the five language components. To bridge the gap, this study aims to systematically and quantitively revisit the TALL-empowered affordances with respect to these language components. To this end, a total of valid 201 articles published from 2010 to 2023 were selected and coded based on the proposed inclusion/exclusion criteria. Results revealed that different TALL platforms (viz. computer, mobile, tablet, virtual reality, and robot) help improve students’ language learning performance and efficacy among the five language components. The implications of the study, in perfect tune with the distance language learning experiences in the post COVID-19 pandemic era, justify the need to take full advantage of the TALL affordances and accelerate the move toward a more technology-friendly field of study.

Syntax of Language in Visual Arts Education: Interactive Understanding through Image Prompt Generator

The development of image generators in visual arts has garnered attention from the field of art education, and this article explores the interaction between language syntax and visual arts through the use of image prompt generators. Given the increasing utilization of AI technology in visual creativity within art education. The research methodology involves analyzing the language syntax within prompts used as instructions for image prompt generators, followed by a visual evaluation of the generated outcomes related to the language descriptions. Data analysis will highlight the correlation between language syntax instructions and visual interpretations, with the subjective of identifying the extent to which language usage influences visual artistic creativity. The results are expected to provide a deeper understanding of the impact of language syntax in creating visual artworks through image prompt generator technology. The implications of this research can enhance comprehension of language syntax usage in the context of visual arts and support the development of more interactive art education methods.