Syntactic Way Research Articles

The Internal Structure of Copular Sentences with desu and da in Japanese

Japanese is a language known for its rich honorific morphology. Different from many Indo-European languages, Japanese language has its honorifics built into the grammar system. Japanese honorifics have many different forms and their usages are not always clearly predictable, which makes it quite challenging for second language learners to grasp. This paper introduces a less-known honorific pattern that clearly shows how Japanese honorifics behave grammatically. The copula verb be in Japanese has two forms: a non-honorific form da and an honorific form desu. Da is used under conditions where the speaker indicates an informal or casual talk, while desu is used when the speaker intends to present good manners to the listener. From a formal linguistic perspective, a sentence with the plain copula form and one with the honorific copula form have a different underlying structure represented in the grammar of native Japanese speakers. The paper explains such difference between copular sentences with desu and da by presenting a syntactic structure analysis. It proposes a different internal structure for a copular sentence with desu and da, and further argues that the sentence with desu has more structure in the left periphery and presents a different verb position in the internal structure in comparison to the sentence with da. The analysis motivates a syntactical way to present and explain the differences in grammatical structures and social contexts of copula use when teaching honorifics in Japanese second language classrooms. It suggests that modern Japanese second language education start teaching honorifics with copular sentences where the distinction between honorific and non-honorific use is very clear and simple.

Sequent-type rejection systems for finite-valued non-deterministic logics

A rejection system, also referred to as a complementary calculus, is a proof system axiomatising the invalid formulas of a logic, in contrast to traditional calculi which axiomatise the valid ones. Rejection systems therefore introduce a purely syntactic way of determining non-validity without having to consider countermodels, which can be useful in procedures for automated deduction and proof search. Rejection calculi have first been formally introduced by Łukasiewicz in the context of Aristotelian syllogistic and subsequently rejection systems for many well-known logics have been proposed. In this paper, we deal with rejection systems for so-called non-deterministic finite-valued logics, a special case of non-deterministic many-valued logics which were introduced by Avron and Lev as a generalisation of traditional many-valued logics. More specifically, we introduce a systematic method for constructing sequent-style rejection systems for any given non-deterministic finite-valued logic. Furthermore, as special instances of our method, we provide concrete calculi for specific paraconsistent logics which can be characterised in terms of non-deterministic two- and three-valued semantics, respectively.

PECULIARITIES OF PROPER NAMES OF MODERN CINEMA FILMS FUNCTIONING

The article is devoted to the study of the proper titles of feature films, through the prism of functioning. The topic under study has been updated by a number of factors, among which is the interest of linguists in the processes of nomination of films, in particular, the activation of typological studies of the proper titles of films as peculiar in terms of functions, structure, derivation, semantic and motivational basis of titles and the development of the Ukrainian film industry. We consider the proper names of feature films to be special, little-studied denotations. We recorded 364 titles of feature films that have been released since 2014.
 In the work, the main tendencies of the functioning of the proper titles of the feature film as a component of ideonymy have been traced. We studied proper names of this type from the point of view of the genre specificity of the researched material. In accordance with this, the following were established: the place and role of the concept of ‘film’ in Ukrainian onomastics, productive types of such names, their structural organization, word-forming potential and semantics of the creative basis of such names.
 Having analyzed such proper names, it is worth noting that, today, drama, in particular – comedy, is one of the most popular genres of Ukrainian cinema. In accordance with the structural organization of films, it is worth noting the high productivity of compound names. Such results, in our opinion, are undoubtedly related to the peculiarities of the functional load of the title-heading as a component of a complete work. Word formation is quite connected with the structure of the name, which is why productivity also gravitates towards lexical-semantic word formation due to the syntactic way of word formation. The semantics of the creative basis of proper names of this type are characterized by the productivity of appellative derivatives, in particular multi-component ones.
 In the future, we see the need to study other classes of filmonyms, as special structural elements of the onymic space of the modern Ukrainian literary language.

A Categorical Normalization Proof for the Modal Lambda-Calculus

We investigate a simply typed modal $\lambda$-calculus, $\lambda^{\to\square}$, due to Pfenning, Wong and Davies, where we define a well-typed term with respect to a context stack that captures the possible world semantics in a syntactic way. It provides logical foundation for multi-staged meta-programming. Our main contribution in this paper is a normalization by evaluation (NbE) algorithm for $\lambda^{\to\square}$ which we prove sound and complete. The NbE algorithm is a moderate extension to the standard presheaf model of simply typed $\lambda$-calculus. However, central to the model construction and the NbE algorithm is the observation of Kripke-style substitutions on context stacks which brings together two previously separate concepts, structural modal transformations on context stacks and substitutions for individual assumptions. Moreover, Kripke-style substitutions allow us to give a formulation for contextual types, which can represent open code in a meta-programming setting. Our work lays the foundation for extending the logical foundation by Pfenning, Wong, and Davies towards building a practical, dependently typed foundation for meta-programming.

Структурные схемы терминов комбинаторной лингвистики в английском языке

The aim of the study is to identify the structural features of terms of combinatorial linguistics, which studies the syntagmatic relations of linguistic units and their combinatorial potential. The article deals with the structural methods of forming the terms of the studied field of knowledge. The scientific novelty lies in the presentation of the structural characteristics of the English terminology of combinatorial linguistics and the description of its structural schemes. As a result of the study, the ways of forming terminological units of combinatorial linguistics in the English language have been identified. The syntactic way of forming terms is the most common - it forms from two-component to six-component terminological word combinations.

Sources of replenishment of the terminological system of veterinary parasitology (based on the German language material)

This article attempts to determine the sources of enrichment of terminology in the field of veterinary parasitology based on the German language material. The relevance is defined by the lack of comprehensive research on the methods of forming terms and terminological phrases in the German language that denote invasive, i.e. parasitic, animal diseases. The goal lies in the analysis of the most effective methods of word formation that denote invasive diseases, as well as the nature of linguistic material used for supplementing the terminological system of veterinary parasitology. Description is given to the methods for borrowing terms; semantic, morphological-syntactic, morphological and syntactic ways of formation of terms. The scientific novelty consists in carrying out comprehensive linguistic analysis of terminological nominations in the German language in the field of veterinary parasitology. It is proven that the corpus of German terms denoting invasive diseases contains a large number of borrowings of Greek-Latin origin, which allows forming the hybrid terms. Among the composite terms, the overwhelming majority are two-word terms of Greek-Latin origin. In the group of multicomponent terminological phrases, most common are the two-component substantive phrases, the generic component of which is the nomination of animal disease, while the specific concept is the name of a particular animal species.

Wordplay in Spanish and Ukrainian ergonyms: ways of creation and functions

The paper focuses on wordplay in the ergonymic names of Madrid, Malaga, Cadiz, Salamanca, Kyiv, Chernihiv and Odesa. The aim of the research is to study ways of creation of wordplay in ergonyms. The author suggests the term словогра / wordplay in Ukrainian and analyses lexico-semantic, grammatical, phonetic, graphic ways of wordplay in Spanish and Ukrainian ergonyms. The material of the study is ergonymic names (names of restaurants, cafés, shops, hairdressing salons / barbershops) of Kyiv, Chernihiv, Odesa, Madrid, Salamanca, Malaga and Cadiz. The research methods applied embrace lexico-semantic, lexico-grammatical, phonetic and graphic analyses of Ukrainian and Spanish ergonyms. Among lexico-semantic means of wordplay formation we single out metaphors, pseudo-paronyms as ways of creation of allusive names. Phonetic means of wordplay creation include alliteration, assonance, rhyme. Graphic means of wordplay creation feature capitalization, paragraphemic signs, use of letters instead of words inside the name. Lexico-grammatical and syntactic ways of wordplay creation in ergonyms are represented by regrouping of syllables, in particular, in the names with the structure of a word combination. The author reveals there are more verb ergonyms in Spanish compared to Ukrainian, where nominative ergonyms are predominant. The distinctive feature of Ukrainian ergonymics is the combination of Cyrillic and Latin letters in one name or writing foreign words in Cyrillic. Wordplay with a humorous effect is more characteristic of Ukrainian ergonyms. It is stated that the main function of wordplay in ergonyms is expressive nomination to attract clients’ attention. Further studies may comprise analysis of wordplay in ergonyms in other regions to reveal local tendencies of wordplay creation and inclination to humour in word formation.

Synthetic and analytical way of expressing diminutivity in the Ukrainian language of the 11th–18th centuries

The main means of diminutive word formation are suffixes, which are of the greatest interest to researchers of diminutival and affectionate vocabulary, however, when studying the problem of the history of diminutive word formation, it is worth taking into account the history of other means of expressing diminutiveness, as word-forming and syntactic ways of expressing diminutiveness have always functioned alongside and interacted. These are analytical and synthetic-analytic means of conveying diminutiveness. The paper presents the results of the analysis of diminutiveness in its pure form, the primacy of diminutiveness and the secondariness of expressive shades based on the example of synthetic-analytical constructions of the 11th–18th centuries. The author determined the synthetic-analytical way of conveying diminutiveness and its role in demarcating small and emotional formations as well. Each lexeme was analyzed in a specific lexical environment, since in diachronic research it is not always possible to be guided by the general meaning, which is the basis of the evaluative word and is established by the generalization of separate multiple contexts, since in past eras diminutiveness was transmitted not only by suffixes, as in affectionate formations, but also with the help of indicator words малъ (малыи) in the 11th–13th centuries, and in the following epochs by such words as невеликий, маленький, мілкий, менший, дрібний etc. These words enable to distinguish smallness from emotionality: горка та не велика, но мала (1106–1108, сп. ХV, ЖХД, 21). A greater role in the detection of diminutive semantics is played by textual clarifications when, for instance, the size of the object was determined: свѣтлочка мала, лав три; в кѣльици малѣ, яко четыре лакоть (КПП, 135) і под. When diminutiveness is conveyed with the use of indicator words in conjunction with a common noun, we are talking about the analytical method: городъ малъ (под 1097, ПВЛ, 234), малого воза (1552, АЮЗР, 1/VІІ, 112). The presence of indicator words великий, болшій in structures with diminutive formants signals dediminution. Without such indicator words, it is often impossible to practically divide lexemes into diminutive, emotional and dediminutive. The materials of the conducted research can be used by derivationists in the study of historical word-forms, the history of the Ukrainian language, teachers, and students in the study of the relevant subject. Keywords: word-form, historical word-form, diminutiveness, pettiness, syntactic means of word-formation

WAYS OF EXPRESSING THE CATEGORY “DEFINITENESS - INDEFINITENESS” IN RUSSIAN, TATAR AND GERMAN LANGUAGES (COMPARATIVE ASPECT)

The purpose of this study is to conduct a comparative typological analysis of the means of expressing the category “Definiteness / Indefiniteness” in German, Tatar and Russian languages and, building on this analysis, to develop a system of exercises that allow to show the specifics of using this category in the compared languages. The relevance of the study is dictated by the practical and theoretical significance of the co-study of different structural languages at school in the process of forming a multilingual student‟s personality. The article analyses the possibilities of a comparative typological method of studying foreign and native languages. Based on this method, a comparative characteristic of the German, Russian and Tatar languages is given in terms of morphological and genealogical classifications. Despite the fact that these languages, according to the presented classifications, are not related, the positive transfer of knowledge and skills, as well as language interference in the co-study of these languages are of great importance. The author considers the category “Definiteness / Indefiniteness” as a functional semantic field having a polycentric structure and combining grammatical, lexical and syntactic means of expression of the category under study. In the absence of a grammatical marker (article in German), lexical means are widely used, it indicates the possibility of expressing the category “Definiteness / Indefiniteness,” especially in Russian and Tatar languages. Among the syntactic ways of expressing the category, the word order with its goal-communicative attitude is distinguished, as well as the intonation in the compared languages. This study contributes to a more effective teaching of German grammar in an audience whose native language is Tatar and (or) Russian. The practical result of the study is a set of exercises demonstrating the possibilities of learning the category “Definiteness / Indefiniteness” using a comparative typological approach.

Category of negation paradigm in diachrony

The negation in logic and linguistics, negation as a grammatical category on the morphological and syntactic levels are substantiated in the article. It is concluded that in broad semantic terms negation can be expressed in morphologic and syntactic ways in natural language. On the morphological level, negative affixes paradigm and separate parts of speech are taken into consideration, while on the syntactic level the whole negative sentence that includes one or more than one negator is observed. Negation is expressed using affixes that have explicative and implicative components in their meaning. Authentic affixes preserve the semantic meaning of the words they etymologically derive from, giving the word they join to, a special shade of negation. The main source of enrichment of the negative affixes paradigm and their new meaning are affixes borrowed from other languages. The study of the category of negation on different levels in diachronic aspects can help to observe the development of particular parts of speech, which can express negation, and serve as a base for further studies of negation in the different discourses and communicative situations.

SEMANTIC-STRUCTURAL PECULIARITIES OF SHAKESPEAREAN NEOLOGISMS

The article reveals the contributions of William Shakespeare to the development of the English language. Author discusses structural features of Shakespearean neologisms and highlights semantic differences in terms of periods of English language. The study reveals the peculiarities of Shakespearean neologisms due to the standpoints of methods of analysis. The article targeted to clarify the neologisms made in the realm of morphological word-formation. The author utilized the observation method and conducted the qualitative research. The neologisms by the dramatist are divided into 4 categories considering their ways of formation. They are following: the neologisms that were coined by affixation; the neologisms that were minted by syntactic way; originally new-born words; the neologisms that were coined by conversion.

Syntactic Means of Expressing Understatement in the Speech of Modern British Teenagers (Based on the Novel by S. Kinsella ‘Finding Audrey’)

The article examines the syntactic means of expressing understatement used in the speech of modern British teenagers based on the material of S. Kinsella's psychological novel Finding Audrey. The author defines understatement as a language category that deliberately underestimates the evaluative reaction to a situation, people and objects with a specific purpose, reflecting the cultural and national characteristics of the British character. Syntactic ways of expressing understatement are considered in the speech of female and male adolescents for the first time. The author concludes that the deliberate pause in the speech of the characters of the novel serves to show restraint of negative and positive emotions and demonstrates linguocultural characteristics of the British.

Terminological Nomination in English and Ukrainian Dental Terminology

The present article deals with the study of structural peculiarities of dental terms in English and Ukrainian. The emergence of new scientific notions raises the requirements for implementation of the nominative function of natural languages. Contemporary dental terminological system is an example of rapid development of a special language. Within the past years, due to the introduction of new technologies and methods of treating patients, the English and Ukrainian dental terminologies have become replenished with new terms. A lot of them have penetrated into the international glossary of dental terminological system, but, due to their specific structural characteristics, in the majority of cases they remain intelligible to the dentists throughout the globe. The relevance of our research is determined by insufficient study of dental terminological system, which, being in constant development, undergoes structural and semantic transformations in order to adapt to the demands of the contemporary world. The comparative approach to the study of term formation is an extremely important aspect of our study. The objective of our investigation is to conduct a comparative analysis of structural means of terminological nomination in English and Ukrainian dental terminological system. The material for the research is represented by the selection of terminological units extracted from contemporary English and Ukrainian dental dictionaries. In our research we focus on morphological and syntactic ways of terminological nomination in modern English and Ukrainian dental terminology. The article is aimed at the study of the types of affixation in the terminology of dentistry of two languages. The investigation of the syntactic method of term formation is carried out by analyzing terminological word-combinations in the studied languages. The obtained results are compared in order to establish dominant tendencies in dental terminology.Keywords: term, terminological system, morphological way of term formation, syntactic way of term formation, dentistry, affixation, terminological word combination.

Word-formative Nomination in the English Terminology of the Mixed Martial Arts

The research featured the English terms related to the sphere of mixed martial arts (MMA) and their word-formation. A detailed analysis of the structure of MMA terms made it possible to distinguish one-, two-, three-, four-, and polycomponential terminological units. One-componential terms were represented by linguistic units expressed by a word with different morphemic composition. Two-componential terms were represented by word-combinations with a noun, an adjective, or a verb (or its forms) as their core elements. Via complex contraction, three- and four-componential terminological units could be transformed into abbreviations. The polycomponential terminological units were few and expressed by gerund word-combinations. The research also revealed related principles of nomination and formation: semantic, morphological, and syntactical. The semantic way was realized via indirect nomination, i.e. metaphor and metonymy. The morphological way was represented by affixation, compounding, and abbreviation. The syntactic way was used to coin the MMA terms expressed by word combinations and gerund word-combinations. The paper focuses on the dominant models and the key types of terminological word-combination, e.g. substantive and attributive

The Syntax and Semantics of the Perfect Structure: A Comparative Approach

The article covers some issues that concern the syntax and semantics of the present perfect construction in English and other languages. It states that all Present Perfects may be associated with what is considered the canonical construal in which an assertion is located at the present time but reports the existence of a past situation. However, some Present Perfects may, in addition, have a simple past aorist meaning. The author focuses on pluractional and evidential construals of the Present Perfect in some languages, argue that the Passé Composé construal and the Aorist construal of the perfect construction belong to two different modes of discourse, discours and récit, underlines their variability associated with a complex syntactic structure (an auxiliary verb and a verbal participle for Present Perfect, while the Aorist construal is associated with a simple verbal structure). According to the author, the Perfect has both syntactic and analytical ways of realization, thus the analytical syntactic structure of the Perfect is in English, French and German, with both a tensed auxiliary verb and a past participle, whereas it is synthetic in Latin, Russian and Arabic as is presented in the past participle alone; in languages with overt aspectual marking, aspect may vary on either the auxiliary, if it exists, or on the participle.

ОСОБЛИВОСТІ ФУНКЦІОНУВАННЯ ЗАЛІЗНИЧНИХ НЕОЛОГІЗМІВ

Метою статті є дослідження особливостей функціонування нових залізничних номінацій двох останніх десятиліть у залізничному дискурсі, включаючи спеціалізовані форуми й блоги, а також у мові засобів масової інформації, передусім на транспортних і новинних порталах. Названо періоди активної появи залізничних неологізмів: перехід на нові види тяги – з парової на теплову й електричну; введення й розвиток швидкісного руху; поява нових видів перевезень. Перелічено об'єкти номінації залізничними неологізмами – одиниці інноваційного рухомого складу, об'єкти інфраструктури, їхні частини, нові спеціальності й виробничі процеси. Зафіксовано превалювання морфологічного й синтаксичного способів словотвору залізничних термінів. На прикладі функціонування синонімічних залізничних неологізмів виявлено залежність функціонального й словотвірного потенціалу нових номінацій від способу їх творення, прозорості семантики мотивованого слова, а для запозичених одиниць – від форми запозичення неологізму й активності обраної словотвірної моделі. Відзначено загальну для термінологічних систем тенденцію вибору більш компактних, більш благозвучних і зрозумілих номінацій. Розглянуто приклади незалежного й паралельного функціонування синонімічних нових номінацій залізничних об’єктів. Виявлено явище стилістичної диференціації окремих синонімічних неологізмів. Відзначено дію соціального чинника на появу цілої групи неологізмів, пов’язаних із популярним серед підлітків новим захопленням – їздою зовні потягів. Визначені стилістична приналежність одиниць цієї групи й семантичні відносини між ними, окреслено сферу їх вживання; зроблено висновки стосовно їхньої словотвірної активності; описано значення багатозначних одиниць; зафіксовано факт створення псевдотермінологічних окказіонализмів.

Syntactic way of term-formation in the hotel business terminology

Syntactic way of term-formation in the hotel business terminology

Penggunaan Ungkapan Beri-Terima Bahasa Jepang dalam Novel Shiro no Naka no Hito Karya Hoshi Shin’ichi

This paper discusses the use of yari-morai phrase (jujuhyougen) found in a novel data source titled Shiro no Naka no Hito. The purpose of this study is to describe the use of expressions of acceptance using Natsuko Tsujimura's theory. The items analyzed in this study are the function, role, and social distance of each argument. From the data analysis, it is found that when analyzed in a syntactic way, each argument functions as a subject and is a direct object or an indirect object. In semantic analysis, from the use of his verb, every argument plays the role of agent and beneficiary. Whereas from the use of passive expressions, each argument acts as a source and a goal. If pragmatic analysis is used, the use of the expressions is influenced by the vertical distance. However, formal situations are more important than existing vertical distances. So that also affects the use of proper expressions.

Singular Terms for Numbers?

In natural language, number-words can be used in two different syntactic ways: adjectivally, i.e., with the syntactic status of an adjective, as in (1) ‘Mars has two moons,’ and nominally, i.e., with the syntactic status of a noun phrase, as in (2) ‘Two is even.’ This syntactic difference is often taken to correspond to a difference in semantic function: adjectival number-words function as predicables, whereas nominal number-words function as singular terms. The view that nominal number-words function as singular terms is typically supported by appeal to certain tests for singular-termhood, tests that stem from the (neo-)Fregean tradition. In this paper, I argue that these tests do not support the view of nominal number-words as singular terms.

Официально-деловой стиль современного английского языка и вопросы словообразования

Introduction . The article is devoted to word formation in the official business style of the English language. The article gives a classification of word formation methods . The lexical, morphological and syntactic ways of forming words in this style are analyzed sequentially. Specific methods of word formation for each of the sub-styles of the official business style are indicated. Purpose of the article is to disclose and analyze peculiarities official business style of modern English . Methods of the analysis, synthesis and abstraction are used in the article. Results. Morphological way of word formation (by means of affixes, formation of complex words, conversion and abbreviations), as a whole, is characteristic of the English language. Here, both productive and unproductive affixes are noted. In English , conversion is the most common way . The study of word-formation models in the vocabulary of the official business style reveals the direction of development of the language in this field. Originality . The process of verbalization is especially noted here. In the lexical-semantic method, terms formed by the method of constriction, expansion and metonymic transfer of the basic value are analyzed. In addition, the processes of terminology, determinologization and interrogation are considered. It is noted that most of the terms used in legal terminology are borrowed. Conclusion . The new vocabulary of the official business style of the English language is formed in various ways: lexical, morphological and syntactic. With the lexical method, conversion, in particular verbalization, is particularly productive. In the legal and military sub-styles the lexical-semantic method is represented by the narrowing and widening of the basic meaning of words. A number of military terms were transferred to the administrative sub-style, in particular, in the area of business. Insofar as legal, diplomatic, and military sub-styles are more susceptible to social change, they can be traced to a large number of borrowings. English vocabulary of official business style can be formed by suffixing, prefixing and prefixing-suffixing ways (morphological method). The syntactic method by which complex words are formed includes various models. In most cases, the noun is assumed to be an indispensable component of these models.