Surface Infiltration Rate Research Articles

Soil properties, crop productivity and energetics under different tillage practices in fodder sorghum + cowpea – wheat cropping system

ABSTRACTTillage is an important agricultural operation which influences soil properties, crop yield and environment. Nine combinations of three tillage practices including conventional tillage (CT), minimum tillage (MT) and zero tillage (ZT) were evaluated in fodder sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) + cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) – wheat (Triticum durum) cropping system for 5 years (2009–2014) on clay loam soil under limited irrigation. Continuous ZT practices significantly improved surface soil organic carbon, bulk density, infiltration rate and maximum water holding capacity. Carbon sequestration rate, soil organic carbon stock and soil enzymatic activities were relatively more under ZT than CT-CT practice. Higher fodder yield of sorghum + cowpea was recorded with CT (kharif) while wheat grain yield with ZT (rabi). However, the system productivity was statistically similar in all the tillage treatments on pooled data basis. The economic benefits were also maximum under ZT-ZT practice. The ZT-ZT practice recorded significantly lowest energy input (17.1 GJ ha−1) which resulted in highest energy use efficiency (13.6) and energy productivity (518 kg GJ−1). Thus, adoption of ZT significantly improved soil health, stabilized crop yield, increased profitability and energy use efficiency in the semi-arid agro-ecosystem.

Modified Pervious Concrete Containing Recycled Asphalt Pavement and Waste Tire Rubber

Portland Cement Pervious Concrete (PCPC) can reduce the risk of flash flood by letting the storm runoff to sip through the voids available in the PCPC hence infiltrate into the soil. This unique ability of pervious concrete offers advantages to the environment, public agencies, and building owners by controlling rainwater on site and addressing storm water runoff issues. Thus, this study was conducted to substantiate the usage of inorganic, cheap and reusable material namely Recycled or reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) and Fine Crumb Rubber (FCR) in pervious concrete. The primary objective of this study is to compare the compressive strength, density and the surface infiltration rate of pervious concrete containing waste tire rubber with pervious concrete that is made up by using natural aggregate without any enhancement. Standard pervious concrete will consist of natural coarse aggregates and cement. In this study, RAP will be replacing the natural coarse aggregates, the same size with the previous research. The modified pervious concrete will also be mixed with a certain percentage of FCR, replacing certain percentage of the coarse aggregate. The results of this study indicate that using recycled material could achieve similar performance as using natural aggregate, hence may reduce the construction cost.

A Review of Permeable Pavement Clogging Investigations and Recommended Maintenance Regimes

Understanding clogging mechanisms in permeable pavements can help optimize the required maintenance regime. In this review paper, methods for investigating clogging mechanisms are described. These include surface infiltration methods, the use of embedded sensors, and the development of modelling tools. Previously conducted surface infiltration tests indicate the importance of the age of a permeable pavement system and also local climatic conditions, including rainfall intensity. The results indicate that porous concrete generally has the highest infiltration capacity and this is followed by permeable interlocking concrete pavement and then porous asphalt. The measured infiltration rates decreased significantly even within two years of installation. There was an indirect relationship between surface infiltration rates and the age of the pavements. It was also found that the rainfall characteristics are important in selecting the type of pavement. Sensor technologies have been used mainly in the United States and there has been a reluctance to use such technologies in other parts of the world. Few studies have been conducted into modelling the changing performance of permeable pavement systems over time and there is a need to develop more general models. Various methods and machinery have been developed for cleaning and maintaining permeable pavements and there is no universally preferred approach currently available. Indeed, several of the commonly used maintenance methods have been shown to be relatively ineffective.

Determining Surface Infiltration Rate of Permeable Pavements with Digital Imaging

Cell phone images of pervious pavement surfaces were used to explore relationships between surface infiltration rates (SIR) measured using the ASTM C1701 standard test and using a simple falling head test. A fiber-reinforced porous asphalt surface and a highly permeable material comprised of stone, rubber and a polymer binder (Porous Pave) were tested. Images taken with a high-resolution cellphone camera were acquired as JPEG files and converted to gray scale images in Matlab® for analysis. The distribution of gray levels was compared to the surface infiltration rates obtained for both pavements with attention given to the mean of the distribution. Investigation into the relationships between mean SIR and parameters determined from the gray level distribution produced in the image analysis revealed that mean SIR measured in both pavements were proportional to the inverse of the mean of the distribution. The relationships produced a coefficient of determination over 85% using both the ASTM and the falling head test in the porous asphalt surface. SIR measurements determined with the ASTM method were highly correlated with the inverse mean of the distribution of gray levels in the Porous Pave material as well, producing coefficients of determination of over 90% and Kendall’s tau-b of roughly 70% for nonparametric data.

Evaluation of surface infiltration rate of permeable block pavements using single-ring infiltrometer

Evaluation of surface infiltration rate of permeable block pavements using single-ring infiltrometer

Estimating Porosity of In Situ Pervious Concrete Using Surface Infiltration Tests

Abstract Widespread adoption and acceptance of pervious concrete systems are dependent on determining the in situ properties of the placement. The porosity of the pervious concrete layer is the dominant variable of the system, affecting durability, hydraulic, and mechanical properties. Current practice has the porosity of the system estimated prior to placement by a fresh concrete density test on the mix from the concrete mixer, and tested after placement by extracting cores and performing a hardened porosity test. This study provides a method for correlating the surface infiltration rate of a newly placed pervious concrete layer and its estimated porosity with simple linear equations. Although not intended to replace standardized acceptance porosity tests, using this existing nondestructive infiltration method for also estimating porosity may readily provide more information on the variable characteristics of an entire pervious concrete slab for correlation to additional studies, performance, and evaluation of installation techniques. The findings also indicate that the standard 300-mm-diameter single-ring surface infiltration test would have similar results to a more involved double-ring imbedded infiltration test. Finally, the research provides information on interpreting the relationship of laboratory measured infiltration rates for single-lift versus double-lift compaction methods, and shows that coring may have impacts on the surface infiltration rate performed on the extracted cores, probably because of coring debris clogging some of the pores.

Hydrological characteristics of calcareous soil with contrasting architecture on dolomite slope of Northwest Guangxi

The traditional hydrology method, stable hydrogen and oxygen isotope technology, and rainfall simulation method were combined to investigate the hydrological function of small experimental plots (2 m×1.2 m) of contrasting architecture in Northwest Guangxi dolomite area. There were four typical catenary soils along the dolomite peak-cluster slope, which were the whole-sand, up-loam and down-sand, the whole loam, up-clay and down-sand soil types, respectively. All the experimental plots generated little amounts of overland runoff and had a high surface infiltration rate, ranging from 41 to 48 mm·h-1, and the interflow and deep percolation were the dominant hydrological progress. The interflow was classified into interflow in soil clay A and C according to soil genetic layers. For interflow in soil clay A, matrix flow was generated from the whole-sand, up-loam and down-sand, up-clay and down-sand soil types, but preferential flow dominated in the whole-loam soil type. As for interflow in soil clay C, preferential flow dominated in the whole-loam, up-clay and down-sand, up-loam and down-sand soil types. The soils were shallow yet continuously distributed along the dolomite slope. The difference of hydrological characteristics in soil types with different architectures mainly existed in the runoff generation progress of each interface underground. It proved that the a 3-D perspective was needed to study the soil hydrological functions on dolomite slope of Northwest Guangxi, and a new way paying more attention on underground hydrological progress should be explored to fully reveal the near-surface hydrological processes on karst slope.

The hydrological functioning of a constructed fen wetland watershed

Mine reclamation requires the reconstruction of entire landforms and drainage systems. The hydrological regime of reclaimed landscapes will be a manifestation of the processes operating within the individual landforms that comprise it. Hydrology is the most important process regulating wetland function and development, via strong controls on chemical and biotic processes. Accordingly, this research addresses the growing and immediate need to understand the hydrological processes that operate within reconstructed landscapes following resource extraction. In this study, the function of a constructed fen watershed (the Nikanotee Fen watershed) is evaluated for the first two years following construction (2013–2014) and is assessed and discussed within the context of the construction-level design. The system design was capable of sustaining wet conditions within the Nikanotee Fen during the snow-free period in 2013 and 2014, with persistent ponded water in some areas. Evapotranspiration dominated the water fluxes from the system. These losses were partially offset by groundwater discharge from the upland aquifer, which demonstrated strong hydrologic connectivity with the fen in spite of most construction materials having lower than targeted saturated hydraulic conductivities. However, the variable surface infiltration rates and thick placement of a soil-capping layer constrained recharge to the upland aquifer, which remained below designed water contents in much of the upland. These findings indicate that it is possible to engineer the landscape to accommodate the hydrological functions of a fen peatland following surface oil sands extraction. Future research priorities should include understanding the storage and release of water within coarse-grained reclaimed landforms as well as evaluating the relative importance of external water sources and internal water conservation mechanisms for the viability of fen ecosystems over the longer-term.

Surface Infiltration Rate of Permeable Block Pavements Depending on the Size of Filling Materials

Surface Infiltration Rate of Permeable Block Pavements Depending on the Size of Filling Materials

Effective Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity for Representing Field-Scale Infiltration and Surface Soil Moisture in Heterogeneous Unsaturated Soils Subjected to Rainfall Events

Spatial heterogeneity in soil properties has been a challenge for providing field-scale estimates of infiltration rates and surface soil moisture content over natural fields. In this study, we develop analytical expressions for effective saturated hydraulic conductivity for use with the Green-Ampt model to describe field-scale infiltration rates and evolution of surface soil moisture over unsaturated fields subjected to a rainfall event. The heterogeneity in soil properties is described by a log-normal distribution for surface saturated hydraulic conductivity. Comparisons between field-scale numerical and analytical simulation results for water movement in heterogeneous unsaturated soils show that the proposed expressions reproduce the evolution of surface soil moisture and infiltration rate with time. The analytical expressions hold promise for describing mean field infiltration rates and surface soil moisture evolution at field-scale over sandy loam and loamy sand soils.

Temperature and Testing Impacts on Surface Infiltration Rates of Pervious Concrete

AbstractPervious concrete placements in many locations are subject to cold weather conditions and varying levels of clogging and rejuvenation. This study focuses on field surface hydraulic performa...

Rainfall thresholds for landslide early warning system in Nakhon Si Thammarat

Transient seepage in unsaturated soil slope is one of the significant triggering factors in rainfall-induced landslides. Rainfall infiltration leads to the decrease in stabilizing effect because of increased positive pore-water pressures. SEEP/W and SLOPE/W used in this study have been widely employed to describe frameworks for understanding transient seepage in soil slope, and to perform slope stability analyses, respectively. The study area is in Sichon District in Nakhon Si Thammarat Province, southern Thailand. A landslide there was investigated by modeling the process of rainfall infiltration under positive and negative pore-water pressures and their effects on slope stability. GIS (Geographic Information System) and geotechnical laboratory results were used as input parameters. The van Genuchten’s soil water characteristic curve and unsaturated permeability function were used to estimate surface infiltration rates. An average rainfall was derived from 30-year monthly rainfall data between 1981 and 2011 in this area reported by the Thailand Royal Irrigation Department. For transient condition, finite element analysis in SEEP/W was employed to model fluctuations in pore-water pressure during a rainfall, using the computed water infiltration rates as surface boundary conditions. SLOPE/W employing Bishop simplified method was then carried out to compute their factors of safety, and antecedent precipitation indices (API) calculated. Heterogeneous slope at the site became unstable at an average critical API (APIcr) of 380 mm, agreeing well with the actual value of 388 mm.

A Simple Infiltration Test for Determination of Permeable Pavement Maintenance Needs

AbstractPermeable pavements allow stormwater to pass through the pavement surface, filtering out sediment and debris; over time, regular preventative maintenance will be needed to maintain the pavement surface infiltration rate (IR). IR testing is commonly used to determine maintenance needs and frequencies. ASTM standard methods may be used to measure permeable pavement IR; however, these tests can take hours to complete and require infiltrometers not readily available to maintenance contractors. A simple infiltration test (SIT) has been devised which (1) is conducted using easily acquired materials, (2) has a larger surface area (i.e., more representative of average pavement conditions), and (3) requires, on average, 72% less time to conduct than the ASTM test. ASTM and SIT methods were compared by conducting a total of 873 IR tests at the same locations on 12 permeable pavements in North Carolina, Ohio, and Sweden. Results showed that (1) a segmented linear relationship related SIT and ASTM-measured IR...

Three Types of Permeable Pavements in Cold Climates: Hydraulic and Environmental Performance

This paper examined and compared the hydraulic and environmental performance of permeable interlocking pavers (PICPs), porous asphalt (PA), and porous concrete (PC) under cold climate conditions in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Assessments were made of their hydraulic performance in terms of storm runoff reduction and surface infiltration capacity, and environmental performance in terms of the removal of several pollutants including total suspended solids (TSS), total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorous (TP) and, heavy metals: copper (Cu), lead (Pb), and zinc (Zn). Results from this paper demonstrated that PA, PC, and PICPs are all effective in mitigating storm runoff under cold climate conditions. Surface infiltration rate was substantially affected by winter sanding materials for PA, PC, and PICPs. Pressure washing was demonstrated to be able to partially restore surface infiltration rates for all three types of pavements. All pavement types in general have the same level of performance in removing TSS, TP, TN, and heavy metals. The removal of TSS, TP, and heavy metals appears to be independent of climatic conditions, whereas TN removal tends to decline with a decrease in pavement temperature.

Maintenance measures for preservation and recovery of permeable pavement surface infiltration rate – The effects of street sweeping, vacuum cleaning, high pressure washing, and milling

The surface infiltration rates (SIR) of permeable pavements decline with time as sediment and debris clog pore spaces. Effective maintenance techniques are needed to ensure the hydraulic functionality and water quality benefits of this stormwater control. Eight different small-scale and full-scale maintenance techniques aimed at recovering pavement permeability were evaluated at ten different permeable pavement sites in the USA and Sweden. Maintenance techniques included manual removal of the upper 2 cm of fill material, mechanical street sweeping, regenerative-air street sweeping, vacuum street sweeping, hand-held vacuuming, high pressure washing, and milling of porous asphalt. The removal of the upper 2 cm of clogging material did not significantly improve the SIR of concrete grid paves (CGP) and permeable interlocking concrete pavers (PICP) due to the inclusion of fines in the joint and bedding stone during construction, suggesting routine maintenance cannot overcome improper construction. For porous asphalt maintenance, industrial hand-held vacuum cleaning, pressure washing, and milling were increasingly successful at recovering the SIR. Milling to a depth of 2.5 cm nearly restored the SIR for a 21-year old porous asphalt pavement to like-new conditions. For PICP, street sweepers employing suction were shown to be preferable to mechanical sweepers; additionally, maintenance efforts may become more intensive over time to maintain a threshold SIR, as maintenance was not 100% effective at removing clogging material.

Experimental Infiltration Tests on Existing Permeable Pavement Surfaces

This study describes a field investigation that compares water infiltration rates of eight permeable parking lots located in Rimini City, Italy. In the experiment a single ring infiltrometer test was used to analyze the influence of the surface type, filling material, location in the parking stall, pavement age, and antecedent dry weather days on the infiltration capacity of the pavements. The results show that the permeability values are mostly affected by the position of the ring in the parking lot, filling material, and surface type rather than by the antecedent dry weather time and pavement age. The surface infiltration rate of the eight pavements ranges between a minimum of 123 mm/h (site 6, permeable interlocking concrete paver, 2005) and a maximum of 20 137 mm/h (site 4, concrete grid paver, 2005), exceeding the 97.2 mm/h minimum design infiltration rate required by selected European authorities. The results also show that compaction decreases the infiltration rate. Therefore, the study could be useful in setting the standard test procedure to evaluate the performance of permeable pavements over time in the Mediterranean climate.

Do sediment type and test durations affect results of laboratory-based, accelerated testing studies of permeable pavement clogging?

Previous studies have attempted to quantify the clogging processes of Permeable Interlocking Concrete Pavers (PICPs) using accelerated testing methods. However, the results have been variable. This study investigated the effects that three different sediment types (natural and silica), and different simulated rainfall intensities, and testing durations had on the observed clogging processes (and measured surface infiltration rates) of laboratory-based, accelerated PICP testing studies. Results showed that accelerated simulated laboratory testing results are highly dependent on the type, and size of sediment used in the experiments. For example, when using real stormwater sediment up to 1.18mm in size, the results showed that neither testing duration, nor stormwater application rate had any significant effect on PICP clogging. However, the study clearly showed that shorter testing durations generally increased clogging and reduced the surface infiltration rates of the models when artificial silica sediment was used. Longer testing durations also generally increased clogging of the models when using fine sediment (<300μm). Results from this study will help researchers and designers better anticipate when and why PICPs are susceptible to clogging, reduce maintenance and extend the useful life of these increasingly common stormwater best management practices.

A Modified Philip–Dunne Infiltrometer for Measuring the Field‐Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity of Surface Soil

There is a current and expanding need to measure surface infiltration rate parameters for stormwater infiltration practices used to mitigate the detrimental effects of land development activities on watershed hydrology. We have developed a falling‐head soil surface infiltrometer, termed the modified Philip–Dunne (MPD) infiltrometer, that is inexpensive to construct, easy to use, and requires a minimal water volume per test. Because of these characteristics, many MPD devices can be deployed simultaneously to obtain infiltration rate data at multiple locations within a given infiltration practice. Green–Ampt theory was used to derive the expressions needed for analyzing the falling‐head data to solve for the field‐saturated hydraulic conductivity (Kfs) and Green–Ampt wetting‐front suction (ψ). The accuracy of the analysis was determined using numerical experiments in which falling‐head data were generated from a computational solution of the axisymmetric form of the three‐dimensional Richards' equation for homogeneous and isotropic porous media with specified input parameters. The falling‐head data were then analyzed using a quasi‐analytical procedure, and the resulting values of Kfs and ψ were compared with the input values. The accuracy of Kfs and ψ derived from data acquired using the MPD device was then assessed using physical experiments involving three large barrels packed with different types of sand. The Kfs values obtained for the media in the barrels using an MPD infiltrometer were, on average, 82% of the values obtained from whole barrel falling‐head tests. The resulting uncertainty in Kfs values from the MPD infiltrometer is considered to be small compared with the orders of magnitude of variability commonly observed for Kfs values in the field.

Comparing Two Methods of Determining Infiltration Rates of Permeable Interlocking Concrete Pavers

Adequate infiltration through Permeable Interlocking Concrete Pavements (PICPs) is critical to their hydraulic performance. Detected by monitoring infiltration performance, reduced infiltration rates can indicate that maintenance is required. Measurement of infiltration rates has previously been problematic on PICPs because of a lack of accepted standard methodologies and the practical difficulties in modifying existing testing methodologies. On large sites, standard methodologies necessitate multiple measurements to achieve accuracy. Standard methods also contend with practical issues such as sealing the rings to the surface to prevent lateral water flow. This study examined the performance of two PICP surface infiltration rate measurement methods: a modified double-ring infiltrometer (DRIT), and a specially designed rainfall simulation infiltrometer (RSIT). A positive correlation (R2 = 0.85) of results was found between the two, demonstrating that the RSIT was comparable to the DRIT. The modified DRIT produced surface infiltration results approximately 60% higher than the RSIT results. The RSIT provided lower variation between tests, requiring fewer measurements in large sites whilst still maintaining accuracy, thereby improving testing efficiency. The new RSIT method also eliminates some of the practical difficulties with existing methodologies such as unrealistic pressure heads artificially increasing infiltration rates, and the use of sealant under test measurement infiltration rings.

Bioretention function under climate change scenarios in North Carolina, USA

The effect of climate change on stormwater controls is largely unknown. Evaluating such effects is important for understanding how well resiliency can be built into urban watersheds by implementing these systems. Bioretention areas with varied media depths, in situ soil types, drainage configurations, and surface infiltration capabilities have previously been monitored, modelled, and calibrated using the continuous simulation model, DRAINMOD. In this study, data from downscaled climate projections for 2055 through 2058 were utilized in these models to evaluate changes in system hydrologic function under two climate change scenarios (RCP 4.5 and 8.5). The results were compared to those generated using a “Base” scenario of observed data from 2001 to 2004. The results showed a modest change in the overall water balance of the system. In particular, the frequency and magnitude of overflow from the systems substantially increased under the climate change scenarios. As this represents an increase in the amount of uncontrolled, untreated runoff from the contributing watersheds, it is of particular concern. Further modelling showed that between 9.0 and 31.0 cm of additional storage would be required under the climate change scenarios to restrict annual overflow to that of the base scenario. Bioretention surface storage volume and infiltration rate appeared important in determining a system’s ability to cope with increased yearly rainfall and higher rainfall magnitudes. As climate change effects vary based on location, similar studies should be performed in other locations to determine localized effects on stormwater controls.