Superior National Research Articles

Wolf Use of Summer Territory in Northeastern Minnesota

ABSTRACT Movements of wolves (Canis lupus) during summer 2003 and 2004 in the Superior National Forest were based around homesites but included extensive use of territories. Away from homesites, wolves used different areas daily, exhibiting rotational use. Mean daily range overlap was 22% (SE = 0.02) and that of breeding wolves was significantly greater than for nonbreeders ( = 25% and 16%, respectively). Rotational use may improve hunting success. Managers seeking to remove entire packs must maintain control long enough to ensure that all pack members are targeted.

Forest Fire Effects on Mercury Deposition in the Boreal Forest

Particulate Hg (pHg) is a component of smoke from biomass burning and has the potential for local redeposition. Throughfall (precipitation collected beneath a conifer or deciduous canopy) and open precipitation samples were collected pre- and postfire in 2005 and 2006 using passive precipitation collectors across the Superior National Forest, located in northern Minnesota, USA. Samples were collected approximately every two weeks and analyzed for total Hg (THg) and methyl Hg (MeHg). THg concentrations increased significantly postfire in conifer throughfall (> 4x increase), open precipitation (2.5x), and when all canopy types were considered (2.9x). MeHg concentrations also increased after fire regardless of the covertype (conifer throughfall: 10x increase; open precipitation: 3.5x increase; deciduous throughfall: 1.7x increase; all canopy types analyzed together: 8x increase). Total Hg deposition increased significantly under conifer cover (3.8x). Methyl Hg deposition increased significantly after fire when all canopy types were analyzed together (4.6x) and in conifer throughfall (5.9x). Canopy type influenced the magnitude of postfire THg and MeHg increase and the duration of elevated MeHg levels. Particulate Hg present in forest fire smoke represents a short-term source of increased Hg in the atmosphere that is available for local redeposition during and following fire.

Influence of the Forest Canopy on Total and Methyl Mercury Deposition in the Boreal Forest

Atmospheric mercury deposition by wet and dry processes contributes mercury to terrestrial and aquatic systems. Factors influencing the amount of mercury deposited to boreal forests were identified in this study. Throughfall and open canopy precipitation samples were collected in 2005 and 2006 using passive precipitation collectors from pristine sites located across the Superior National Forest in northern Minnesota, USA. Samples were collected approximately every 2 weeks and analyzed for total (THg) and methyl mercury (MeHg). Forest canopy type and density were the primary influences on THg and MeHg deposition. Highest THg and MeHg concentrations were measured beneath conifer canopies (THg mean = 19.02 ng L−1; MeHg mean = 0.28 ng L−1) followed by deciduous throughfall (THg mean = 12.53 ng L−1; MeHg mean = 0.19 ng L−1) then open precipitation (THg mean = 8.19 ng L−1; MeHg mean = 0.12 ng L−1). The greater efficiency of conifers at scavenging THg and MeHg from the atmosphere may increase the risk of mercury related water quality issues in conifer-dominated systems.

A Six-Step Approach for Identifying and Prioritizing Potential Research Natural Areas, Superior National Forest, Minnesota

To identify and prioritize natural areas for consideration as research natural areas (RNAs) on the Superior National Forest (National Forest hereafter NF) in northeastern Minnesota, we developed a six-step approach that could be applied to natural area selection anywhere. Our goal was to select a limited number of sites to represent the NF's landscape and local ecosystem diversity. We also sought to minimize management conflicts. The steps are: (1) review existing information to create a list of potential sites; (2) develop a scoring system and score sites based on attributes that assess “natural area” quality of sites from maps, data, and other office information; (3) list ecosystems represented by each site and review sites based on their quality scores and the ecosystems they represent; (4) conduct field evaluations to confirm ecosystem quality for as many high scoring sites as feasible; (5) integrate the information from steps 1–4 with regional and local guidelines for conservation goals, ecosystem representation, and standards for site quality; and (6) review sites to minimize management conflicts and to maximize ecosystem representation and document the findings. Even with limited funds, using the six steps, we pared down the list from 114 to 41 sites for consideration in forest planning. Managers later used results to select 11 of the 41 sites for RNA establishment.

Northerly Range Extensions of Mammalian Species in Minnesota

An inventory and monitoring program for species of non-volant small mammals was undertaken in Voyageurs National Park on the Minnesota-Canadian border. Other observations of mammals were made in and around the Park (1967–2004). Here we report species range extensions, most noted since 1982, for four species of rodents present in and/or around the Park and Superior National Forest. They are the white-footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus), rock vole (Microtus chrotorrhinus), Franklin's ground squirrel (Spermophilus franklinii) and eastern gray squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis). We also report the expansions within the state of the badger (Taxidea taxus) and the raccoon (Procyon lotor), previously known to occur further north in Canada. The results are discussed in the context of inventorying strategies, anthropogenic global climate change and the reservoirs for diseases transmissible to humans.

Estimated Age Structure of Wolves in Northeastern Minnesota

Information about population age structures is useful to understand survival rates, longevity, and population turnover. However, little such information is available about wolf (Canis lupus) populations. Mech (1970) estimated age structures of wolf-population age structure from pup:adult ratios applying various demographic assumptions, but no direct information has been published to test his estimate. Mech et al. (1998) aged 94 live wolves darted in Denali National Park and Preserve, Alaska, USA, but the estimates of wolf ages were based on educated guesses because no technique was available for aging live wolves. Since then, Gipson et al. (2000) published criteria for aging live wolves based on tooth wear of known-aged animals. This method allows data to be gathered from populations of live animals, which can facilitate examination of the age structure of populations. My objective was to use this method to estimate the age structure of a population of wolves in the Superior National Forest (SNF) of northeastern Minnesota, USA.

Simple Models Suggest Answers to Complex Questions Do We Need Satellite Surveillance for Land Warfare? A Lancastrian View.

This technical working paper presents a model suggesting that the development of a satellite military system, when once in place, would not be more efficient in terms of required military expenditures of the U.S. than a land-based military operation (system). Hence, if not basically modified to incorporate suggestions for change, the model indicates that the large requirements for development expenditures on a satellite military system would be a clear waste of funds for a technologically superior nation such as U.S. is currently. These funds could be more usefully spent to develop a more effective means to police the global system.

An Integer Optimization Approach to a Probabilistic Reserve Site Selection Problem

Interest in protecting natural areas is increasing as development pressures and conflicting land uses threaten and fragment ecosystems. A variety of quantitative approaches have been developed to help managers select sites for biodiversity protection. The problem is often formulated to select the set of reserve sites that maximizes the number of species or ecological communities that are represented, subject to an upper bound on the number or area of selected sites. Most formulations assume that information about the presence or absence of species in the candidate sites is known with certainty. Because complete information typically is lacking, we developed a reserve selection formulation that incorporates probabilistic presence-absence data. The formulation was a discrete 0/1 optimization model that maximized the number of represented vegetation communities subject to a budget constraint, where a community was considered represented if its probability of occurrence in the set of selected sites exceeded a specified minimum reliability threshold. Although the formulation was nonlinear, a log transformation allowed us to represent the problem in a linear format that could be solved using exact optimization methods. The formulation was tested using a moderately sized reserve selection problem based on data from the Superior National Forest in Minnesota.

An Optimization Approach to Selecting Research Natural Areas in National Forests

Abstract The USDA Forest Service has a long-established program to identify areas in national forests for designation as protected Research Natural Areas (RNAs). One of the goals is to protect high quality examples of regional ecosystems for the purposes of maintaining biological diversity, conducting nonmanipulative research and monitoring, and fostering education. When RNA designation conflicts with other land uses, difficult choices must be made about the best number and location of sites. We addressed this problem by adapting a classic optimization formulation from the location science literature. The formulation was an integer optimization model for selecting the set of RNAs that maximized the number of regional ecosystems and natural communities represented subject to an upper bound on the total area covered by the sites in the selected set. We applied the formulation using 33 potential RNAs in the Superior National Forest in northeastern Minnesota. The 33 potential RNAs were chosen for our case study because they had been mapped and field-surveyed for the presence of natural communities. The use of those sites does not imply that other areas in the Superior National Forest do not merit further study as RNA candidates. The model quickly generated information about the trade-offs between different protection goals. We found multiple sets of potential RNAs, ranging from all 33 sites to a much smaller set of 21 sites, that attained the specified goals for natural community representation. Thus, the decision-maker can choose among sets of sites with a wide range of total areas without compromising the representation goal. We also found that requirements to choose a set of sites that represents a range of locally defined ecosystems or priority natural communities can limit the total number of natural communities that can be represented within a set of sites of a given area. Average solution times for different problems were less than 5 seconds on a personal computer, suggesting that integer optimization can readily facilitate investigation of the impacts of RNA selection goals. For. Sci. 45(3):458-469.

Conservation, Subsistence, and Class at the Birth of Superior National Forest

In the United States today, anti-environmentalism-broadly defined as opposition to state regulation of natural resources and management of public lands-is a powerful political sentiment. Its proponents range from libertarians and corporate board members to grassroots organizations and workers in extractive industries. Its targets include national environmental legislation, environmentalist legislators, and local environmental activity. Anti-environmentalism finds some of its strongest support in communities on the edges of federal areas. Many residents of such communities, like their counterparts in developing nations, resent what they perceive as the control of outsiders through environmental regulations and public land bureaucracies. Contemporary U.S. anti-environmentalism is conservative in that it defines itself in opposition to the ideology and programs of the liberal state. Like other conservatives, anti-environmentalists argue that, rather than serving the interests of society as a whole, liberalism's expansion of the power of the state has in fact been used by elites for their own ends and in ways that conflict with the desires and needs of communities and ordinary people.''1 Historians have paid conservatism far less attention than its power and importance in U.S. history warrant. Environmental historians are no exception to this pattern. Scholars have been understandably too interested in environmentalism to spend much energy on detailing the motives and sources of its opponents; thus, the history of environmental politics has generally been told from the point of view of environmentalists and their conservationist predecessors. In his history of the concept of in U.S. thought, Roderick Nash laid the foundation for this approach in the early stages of environmental history. Nash writes as though the history of the aesthetic were synonymous with the history of appreciation of nature.2 Such is also the case with major studies of conservationist and environmentalist efforts to create parks and areas. Most historians present these places as self-evident wilderness areas, largely unaffected by humans and appealing precisely because of their distance from the pressures of modern life. From this perspective, rapacious exploitation is the always-present counterpart of

Predicting Effects of Deferred Clearcutting on Pine Marten Habitat Suitability on the Superior National Forest

Predicting Effects of Deferred Clearcutting on Pine Marten Habitat Suitability on the Superior National Forest

Developing programs to monitor ecosystem health and effectiveness of management practices on Lakes States National Forests, USA

Assessing accomplishment of management objectives related to ecosystem health requires monitoring key indicators, including ecological processes and components of biological diversity. For these purposes, a monitoring plan was developed on the Chequamegon National Forest. It was refined by use of public workshops and technical consultation, and later adjusted based on practicality and additional inventory needs. To date, monitoring has focused on plants and birds, including long-term baseline monitoring in both managed forest and more natural areas. Monitoring is done at both the national forest and the ranger district levels, a forest subunit, the latter usually focusing on specific projects rather than forestwide ecosystem health concerns. Examples from the Laurentian ranger district of the Superior National Forest are provided. Future assessments will require qualitative, quantitative and spatial analyses of community, ecosystem, habitat and population trends and patterns, and management effects. An institutionalized program that focuses on key ecosystem components at various scales, and that involves concerned publics and many partners, will be necessary to provide feedback to refine forest management.

Lack of Edge Effect in Nesting Success of Breeding Birds in Managed Forest Landscapes

We assessed avian nesting success in two forested landscapes (Chippewa and Superior National Forests) in northern Minnesota. We found 311 nests of 33 species in the Chippewa study area and 36 nests of 13 species in the Superior study area. Each nest was classified into one of three general habitat types: open (clearcuts with vegetation 8 m high). Mayfield nesting success for the most common species in the Chippewa (all of which had open-cup nests) averaged 0.43. Nesting success ranged from 0.18 for the Red-eyed Vireo (Vireo olivaceus) to 0.76 for the Yellow Warbler (Dendroica petechia). Nest predation was the most common mortality factor, causing 89.2% of known failures. Nest predation among ground-nesting birds was signifi- cantly higher in the Chippewa (55%) than in the Superior (15%) study area (P = 0.038). Nest predation was highest (P = 0.015) in the forest (62.2%) and lowest in open (42.2%) and regenerating (47.4%) habitat types. Only canopy cover explained differences in nesting suc- cess, which was higher in more open canopies. Distance to forest edge, nest height, and nest concealment had no effect on nesting success in both forested and open habitats. Brown- headed Cowbird (Molothrus ater) parasitism was low (9.6% in the Chippewa study area), and parasitized nests were relatively unsuccessful (only 1.7% yielded cowbird fledglings). Neither cowbirds nor nest parasitism was observed in the Superior study area. Received 30 May 1995, accepted 20 August 1995.

Data sets for modeling: A retrospective collection of bidirectional reflectance and forest ecosystems dynamics multisensor aircraft campaign data sets

The Biospheric Sciences Branch, within the Laboratory for Terrestrial Physics at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center, has assembled two data sets for free dissemination to the remote sensing research community. One data set, referred to as the Retrospective Bidirectional Reflectance Distribution Function (BRDF) Data Collection, is a collection of bidirectional reflectance and supporting biophysical measurements of surfaces ranging in diversity from bare soil to heavily forested canopies. The other data collection, resulting from measurements made in association with the Forest Ecosystems Dynamics Multisensor Aircraft Campaign (FED MAC), contains data that are relevant to ecosystem process models, particularly those which have been modified to incorporate remotely sensed data. Both of these collections are being made available to the science community at large in order to facilitate model development, validation, and usage. These data collections are subsets which have been compiled and consolidated from individual researchers or from several large data set collections including: the First International Satellite Land Surface Climatology Project (ISLSCP) Field Experiment (FIFE); FED MAC; the Superior National Forest Project (SNF); the Geologic Remote Sensing Field Experiment (GRSFE); and Agricultural Inventories through Space Applications of Remote Sensing (AgriStars). The complete, stand-alone FED MAC Data Collection contains atmospheric, vegetation, and soils data acquired during field measurement campaigns conducted at International Papers' Northern Experimental Forest located approximately 40 km north of Bangor, Maine. Reflectance measurements at the canopy, branch, and needle level are available, along with detailed canopy architectural measurements. Both the BRDF and FED MAC Data Collections are available on MS-DOS compatible 3.5-in. floppy disks, along with detailed documentation of the instrumentation and methodology used to make the measurements, descriptions of the spatial and temporal coverage of the data, quality assessment measures, and other descriptive information required to use the data. A specialized MS-DOS software package has been developed to facilitate data archival and retrieval, including graphing capability.

Selection of Wolf Dens in Relation to Winter Territories in Northeastern Minnesota

Locations of wolf ( Canus lupus ) dens in the Superior National Forest in northeastern Minnesota from 1969 through 1988 were analyzed in relation to winter territories. Dens situated within the central 60% of the territories were randomly located relative to territory centers. However, only 10.5% (2) of the dens were located within a 1-km-wide strip inside the territory boundaries, indicating possible avoidance of neighboring packs. A negative relationship ( r 2 = 0.27; P 1 year, and possibly the availability of a stable food source helped determine den location.

Seasonal patterns of weight, hematology, and serum characteristics of free-ranging female white-tailed deer in Minnesota

Weights, hematology, and serum profiles of white-tailed does in the central Superior National Forest of northeastern Minnesota were examined year-around to determine seasonal patterns of nutritional condition and metabolism. Deer were initially captured by Clover trap or rocket net. Between 15 February 1989 and 23 January 1990, we recaptured 12 adult (> 1.5 years) female deer 1–9 times each (a total of 59 recaptures) using a radio-controlled capture collar. Monthly weights of deer exhibited a cyclic seasonal pattern. Mean weight declined 22% from February to an annual minimum during May, then steadily increased 45% to a maximum in October. Seasonal patterns were most evident for hemoglobin concentration, red blood cells, packed cell volume, serum total protein, urea nitrogen, creatinine, the urea N to creatinine ratio, triiodothyronine, cortisol, and potassium. Wide seasonal variations of these characteristics were indicative of shifts in the deer's metabolic physiology. Although seasonal metabolic shifts are partially attributable to an endogenous rhythm, the intensity of their expression was most likely affected by nutritional changes and concomitant alterations of body condition. Annual changes in seasonal trends of blood characteristics may be useful in investigating nutritional effects of specific environmental and demographic factors. We compare our findings with those reported for deer on ranges farther south.

Dispersal of wolves (Canis lupus) in northeastern Minnesota, 1969–1989

We examined the dispersal patterns of radio-collared wolves (Canis lupus) from 21 packs in the Superior National Forest, Minnesota, from 1969 to 1989. A total of 316 wolves (542 wolf-years) were captured, radio-collared, and followed during 21 years of radio-tracking; 75 were identified as dispersers. Both sexes dispersed equally. Of the adults, yearlings, and pups, 8, 75, and 16%, respectively, dispersed. Most dispersers left when they were 11–12 months old, only a few wolves dispersing as adults. Dispersal occurred mainly in February–April and October–November. Adults dispersed short distances into nearby territories, but yearlings and pups dispersed both short and long distances. Yearling and pup dispersal rates were highest when the wolf population was increasing or decreasing and low when the population was stable. Adults had the highest pairing and denning success. Yearlings had moderate pairing and low denning success, and pups had low pairing and denning success. Yearlings and pups that dispersed a short distance had a higher success of settling in a new territory, likely reflecting available vacancies in nearby territories. Thirty-five percent of the known-age wolves remained in their natal territory for >2 years; two wolves were known to have remained for >7 years. The relative weight of pups at capture apparently did not affect their age or success of dispersal or the tendency to disperse.

GRAY WOLF DENSITY AND ITS ASSOCIATION WITH WEIGHTS AND HEMATOLOGY OF PUPS FROM 1970 TO 1988

We examined weights and hematologic profiles of gray wolf (Canis lupus) pups and the associated wolf density in the east-central Superior National Forest of northeastern Minnesota (USA) during 1970 to 1988. We collected weight and hematologic data from 117 pups (57 females, 60 males) during 1 September to 22 November each year. The wolf density (wolves/800 km2) trend was divided into three phases: high (72 +/- 7), 1970 to 1975; medium (44 +/- 2), 1976 to 1983; and low (27 +/- 2), 1984 to 1988. Wolf numbers declined (P = 0.0001) 39 and 63% from 1970 to 1975 to 1976 to 1983 and from 1970 to 1975 to 1984 to 1988, respectively. Weight was similar between male and female pups and did not vary as wolf density changed. Mean hemoglobin (P = 0.04), red (P = 0.0001) and white blood cells (P = 0.002), mean corpuscular volume, mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration and mean corpuscular hemoglobin (P = 0.0001) did differ among the multi-annual phases of changing wolf density. Weight and hematologic data also were compared to values from captive wolf pups. The high, but declining wolf density was associated with macrocytic, normochromic anemia in wolf pups, whereas the lowest density coincided with a hypochromic anemia. Although hematologic values show promise for assessing wolf pup condition and wolf population status, they must be used cautiously until data are available from other populations.

Statistical error analysis for biomass density and leaf area index estimation

Dimension analysis uses fitted allometric relationships to estimate whole-tree characteristics from dimensional measurements. Errors in dimension-analysis estimates of forest stand biomass and leaf area are often unreported and rarely analyzed. Errors may arise from measurement error, choice of model, fitting of parameters in models, and spatial variation within a sampled stand. Examination of these components separately will show how efficiency can be most effectively increased and balanced. We used dimension analysis to estimate biomass density and leaf area index for stands of trembling aspen (Populustremuloides Michx.) and black spruce (Piceamariana (Mill.) B.S.P.) in the Superior National Forest, Minnesota, United States. Estimates had average coefficients of variation ranging from 11% (aspen biomass density) to 23% (spruce leaf area index). Partitioning of these errors showed that error sources varied with species, variable, and site conditions, but most error was due either to parameter estimation or to spatial variation; model inaccuracies contributed only trivially to total error. The most cost-effective means of increasing precision of estimation would be to sacrifice more trees (even with less precise measurements of individual trees) to fit the models, or sample larger areas in stands; more sophisticated models would have little effect on error.

Airborne mercury deposition and watershed characteristics in relation to mercury concentrations in water, sediments, plankton, and fish of eighty northern Minnesota lakes

Mercury concentrations in precipitation, lake water and sediment, zooplankton, and fish were measured and analyzed together with extensive watershed and lake chemistry data for 80 lake watersheds in the study region of northeastern Minnesota including the Superior National Forest, Voyageurs National Park, and Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness. Atmospheric deposition of mercury, transport, water column lifetimes, and sedimentation in lakes are determined. The factors relating mercury concentrations within the lake watershed components are analyzed and discussed