Subtypes Of Dyslexia Research Articles

Is Chinese Dyslexia Similar Across Chinese Societies? Evidence from Hong Kong, Beijing, and Taipei

AbstractWhile previous research has documented the unique aspects of Chinese dyslexia as compared to dyslexia in alphabetic scripts, it remains unclear whether the difference in Chinese literacy experiences influences the manifestation of Chinese dyslexia. The present article first reviews the characteristics of Chinese languages and scripts, including important cognitive‐linguistic correlates (rapid automatized naming, phonological, orthographic, and morphological awareness) of Chinese reading development and impairment. The diversity in Chinese literacy experiences of scripts, languages, and instructional practices, and consequently their impact on Chinese literacy acquisition across different Chinese societies are also reviewed. Using an equivalent Chinese assessment battery administered to 91 children with dyslexia from Hong Kong, Beijing, and Taipei, we examined the subtypes of Chinese dyslexia across these three societies concurrently. With the four cognitive‐linguistic skills included as the clustering variable, the hierarchical cluster analysis revealed four cognitive subtypes of dyslexia: 38% mild orthographic deficit subtype (OD), 33% phonological deficit subtype (PD), 18% morphological deficit subtype (MD), and 11% global deficit subtype (GD)—each with their own set of cognitive‐linguistic deficit profiles. Interestingly, all four subtypes of dyslexia manifested poorer orthographic skills as compared to the control group. Bayesian Analysis of Contingency Table further showed that the distribution of dyslexia subtypes remains similar across the three Chinese societies, suggesting invariance of the Chinese dyslexia construct. Findings highlight the importance of assessment in orthographic processing, rapid automatized naming, phonological awareness, and morphological awareness in order to understand Chinese dyslexia, both in a within and cross‐cultural Chinese perspective.

Subtypes of Dyslexia and the Current Status of Morphemic Awareness Interventions

This paper summarizes and analyses the subtypes of dyslexia, and finds that the major frameworks for dyslexia research, both in alphabetic writing system and Chinese, include three areas of delineation based on reading model theory, basic perceptual deficits, and cognitive-linguistic deficits. Then describes how morphemic awareness is measured, and the current state of research on morphemic awareness interventions for dyslexia was reviewed, and it was found that morphemic awareness instructional interventions are better, and the content of the interventions varies across researchers and subjects. Future interventions for children with dyslexia may consider the use of targeted instructional interventions for morphemic awareness.

Predicting Response to Neuropsychological Intervention in Developmental Dyslexia: A Retrospective Study.

Identifying the patients who are likely to be non-responders to a certain treatment may allow clinicians to provide alternative strategies and avoid frustration and unrealistic expectations for the patients and their families. A retrospective study on 145 children treated with visual hemisphere-specific stimulation examined the specific profiles (reading, writing, metaphonology, memory, callosal functions) of non-responders, and identified predictors of response to intervention (reading, reading and writing) through linear regression models. The effects of additional variables such as rapid automatized naming (RAN) and Visual Search were investigated in a subsample of 48 participants. Subgroups related to gender and dyslexia subtype were considered in the analyses. The results highlight an Intervention Differential Effect (IDE) not depending on regression to the mean and mathematical coupling effects. The characteristics of non-responders for reading seem to correspond children with mild reading and severe writing impairments; non-responders for reading and writing are those with impaired callosal transfer. Predictors of overall response to intervention were pre-test reading and writing scores; phoneme blending, accuracy in visual search and speed in rapid automatized naming contributed to explaining response variance. Specific predictors for female vs. male participants and dyslexia subtypes were identified.

Not just phonology: a longitudinal study of dyslexia subtypes based on the distinction between reading accuracy and reading rate

IntroductionPrevious cross-sectional investigations by Shany and colleagues have provided evidence of double dissociation among dyslexics between word reading accuracy and (pure) word reading rate. A rate-disabled subtype (with intact reading accuracy) evinced deficits only in rapid naming (RAN); An accuracy-disabled subtype (with intact reading rate) showed deficits in phonological awareness (PA) and morphological awareness (MA) but not RAN.MethodThe present longitudinal study followed 639 Palestinian Arabic-speaking children from preschool to Grade 1 with the aim of determining (1) whether a dissociation between PA C MA and RAN is apparent among pre-literate preschoolers, (2) whether the PA C MA-disabled subgroup constitutes a mild form of Developmental Language Disorder (DLD), (3) whether our three disabled subgroups (PA C MA-only, RAN-only, and PA C MA-plus-RAN) can be differentiated on preschool early literacy measures and, (4) whether the three at-risk subgroups develop into selectively rate-disabled, accuracy-disabled, or doubly-disabled (accuracy C rate) readers in Grade 1?ResultsOur findings confirmed the existence of two distinct selectively disabled/at-risk subgroups in preschool: a RAN-only subgroup with intact PA and MA and a PA C MA subgroup with broad impairments across language measures but intact RAN. Grade 1 reading data also confirmed that the RAN-disabled subgroup became slow but accurate readers, whereas the PA C MA subgroup developed into inaccurate and slow readers.DiscussionOur study indicates partial dissociation between early dyslexia subtypes, each displaying distinct and non-overlapping cognitive-linguistic profiles in preschool. The study also revealed a strong association between reading accuracy and reading rate among beginning readers. This study emphasizes the importance of considering heterogeneity in reading outcomes as well as multiple oral language skills beyond the well-documented role of PA.

인지처리 및 언어 기술에 기반한 난독증 하위유형 탐색: 잠재프로파일분석을 중심으로

This study classified Korean dyslexia into subtypes based on cognitive processing and language skills and examined the relationships between the strengths and weaknesses of the classified subtypes and reading achievement. The study participants were 206 children with dyslexia in grades 1-3 of an elementary school. The following variables were measured to classify dyslexia into subtypes: phonological awareness, letter knowledge, rapid naming, phonological memory, sentence memory, receptive vocabulary, and listening comprehension skills. Furthermore, the groups were compared in three reading achievement variables: word reading, reading fluency, and reading comprehension. The latent profile analysis identified four subtypes of dyslexia, including the “overall defect group” with overall difficulty in cognitive processing and language skills; “processing speed dominant group” showing strength in letter knowledge and rapid naming; “working memory dominant group” showing strength in phonological and sentence memory abilities; and “receptive language dominant group” with receptive vocabulary and listening comprehension abilities. The comparison of reading achievement between groups revealed that the “overall defect group” was characterized as having lower word reading and reading fluency than the other three groups, whereas the “receptive language dominant group” had strengths in reading comprehension. This is the first study in Korea in which an empirical and exploratory attempt has been made to classify dyslexia into subtypes beyond the limits of the theoretical framework. Moreover, the study results promoted an understanding of the heterogeneity of dyslexia through the strengths and weaknesses of subtypes based on cognitive processing and language skills and had implications for intervention.

Developmental Dyslexia Subtypes Described in Brazilian Portuguese: An Integrative Review

Resumo A heterogeneidade na dislexia do desenvolvimento pode ser compreendida por meio dos subtipos de dislexia do desenvolvimento (SDD), porém não foram encontrados estudos que avaliassem a literatura brasileira sobre SDD. A presente revisão buscou responder quais SDD foram identificados no português brasileiro. Foram incluídos estudos empíricos, em inglês ou português, que descrevessem ao menos um SDD, bem como critérios diagnósticos, com participantes brasileiros. As buscas foram realizadas nas bases Scielo, Pubmed e Google Scholar. Como resultado, foram encontrados 11 estudos referentes a seis SDD, sendo as dislexias fonológicas e de superfície as mais presentes, e foram descritas as definições, critérios de identificação e instrumentos de avaliação utilizados em cada estudo. Foi discutida a heterogeneidade de definições, critérios de identificação e instrumentos de avaliação encontrados. Destacam-se o pequeno número de relatos em comparação com a literatura internacional e a necessidade de tarefas padronizadas, validadas e sensíveis aos SDD no português brasileiro.

What are the cognitive-linguistic profiles and subtypes of Chinese adolescents with dyslexia?

While research has identified multiple deficits that may lead to dyslexia, the profiles of adolescents with dyslexia and dyslexia subtypes are yet fully understood. This study examined the profiles of Chinese adolescents with dyslexia and identified dyslexia subtypes. Adolescents from grades 7 to 9 (n = 184, 92 with dyslexia) were evaluated on morphological skills, visual-orthographic knowledge, rapid naming, working memory, word reading, word spelling, reading fluency and reading comprehension. The results revealed that adolescents with dyslexia performed less well on the cognitive-linguistic and literacy measures than typically developing adolescents. A logistic regression analysis also showed that morphological skills, visual-orthographic knowledge and rapid naming were significantly predictive of dyslexia status. Using cluster analysis and guided by the multiple deficit hypothesis, this study identified four dyslexia subtypes: morphological deficit, visual-orthographic knowledge deficit, rapid naming deficit and global deficit showing multiple cognitive-linguistic and literacy problems. Understanding the profiles and subtypes of dyslexia could enable educational psychologists and educators to select appropriate assessment measures and develop intervention strategies to support the learning of Chinese adolescents with dyslexia.

Neurophysiological signatures of clinical subtypes of developmental dyslexia

Neurophysiological signatures of clinical subtypes of developmental dyslexia

The harmonized QEEG improves the classification of subtypes of developmental dyslexia

The harmonized QEEG improves the classification of subtypes of developmental dyslexia

Subtypes of Developmental Dyslexia

In light of teaching students with dyslexia and other learning difficulties (LD), neuroscientists claim that such deficiencies happen due to a neural base, depending on biological and environmental factors, and experience developing properties and improving reading skills. The research claims two types of dyslexia: developmental (or innate) and deep (or acquired due to brain traumas or diseases). This article researches developmental dyslexia (DD), which may be primary and secondary. DD is divided into two main subtypes: surface and phonological While reading; our brains must "rewire" neural circuits initially used for other tasks, such as visual and speech processing and attention and cognition. Psycholinguistics investigates the cognitive process of perception, production, and general use of language. This article revises teaching English in light of neuroscience, psycholinguistics, and appropriate methods to train working memory and other ways to overcome DD and its subtypes.

Accuracy-disability versus rate-disability subtypes of dyslexia: A validation study in Arabic

ABSTRACT Purpose We previously reported evidence of true double dissociation between reading accuracy and reading rate in a large unselected sample of Hebrew-speaking fourth graders and a large clinical sample of adult Hebrew-speakers with dyslexia. The present study aimed to replicate and extend these findings to Arabic, which is structurally similar to Hebrew but has distinct linguistic and orthographic features. Method and results In a nationally representative 4th grade sample (N = 236), we show that (1) around one third of children with dyslexia had impaired reading rate but intact accuracy whereas another third had impaired accuracy but intact rate, (2) there was a double dissociation with respect to additional (validation) measures of reading accuracy and rate (pseudowords and text), and (3) the accuracy-only and rate-only disability subtypes displayed distinct and non-overlapping cognitive-linguistic profiles. Conclusion This evidence converges on the conclusion that accuracy-only and rate-only dyslexic subtypes represent true or “hard” subtypes in an absolute and not merely relative sense. We also found that the accuracy-only subgroup represents a group with broad language weaknesses, primarily phonological but also non-phonological. Finally, we discuss the resemblance between the present rate-accuracy typology and Wolf and Bowers’ double-deficit typology.

K-Means clustering by using the calculated Z-scores from QEEG data of children with dyslexia

Learning the subtype of dyslexia may help shorten the rehabilitation process and focus more on the relevant special education or diet for children with dyslexia. For this purpose, the resting-state eyes-open 2-min QEEG measurement data were collected from 112 children with dyslexia (84 male, 28 female) between 7 and 11 years old for 96 sessions per subject on average. The z-scores are calculated for each band power and each channel, and outliers are eliminated afterward. Using the k-Means clustering method, three different clusters are identified. Cluster 1 (19% of the cases) has positive z-scores for theta, alpha, beta-1, beta-2, and gamma-band powers in all channels. Cluster 2 (76% of the cases) has negative z-scores for theta, alpha, beta-1, beta-2, and gamma-band powers in all channels. Cluster 3 (5% of the cases) has positive z-scores for theta, alpha, beta-1, beta-2, and gamma-band powers at AF3, F3, FC5, and T7 channels and mostly negative z-scores for other channels. In Cluster 3, there is temporal disruption which is a typical description of dyslexia. In Cluster 1, there is a general brain inflammation as both slow and fast waves are detected in the same channels. In Cluster 2, there is a brain maturation delay and a mild inflammation. After Auto Train Brain training, most of the cases resemble more of Cluster 2, which may mean that inflammation is reduced and brain maturation delay comes up to the surface which might be the result of inflammation. Moreover, Cluster 2 center values at the posterior parts of the brain shift toward the mean values at these channels after 60 sessions. It means, Auto Train Brain training improves the posterior parts of the brain for children with dyslexia, which were the most relevant regions to be strengthened for dyslexia.

Developmental dyslexia and cerebellar abnormalities: Multiple roles of the cerebellum and causal relationships between the two

<p id="p00005">Developmental dyslexia (hereafter referred as "dyslexia") will not only affect the lifelong development of individuals but also impose an additional financial burden on society. Digging into the relevant neural mechanisms contributes to the early prediction and intervention of dyslexia. Established models of the neural bases of dyslexia primarily focused on the cerebrum. In recent years, extensive studies have shown that dyslexia is also associated with cerebellar abnormalities. However, it remains unclear about the relationships between the two. <p id="p00007">By summarizing recent findings, we found that the cerebellum could play multiple roles in reading. First, it could influence reading in different ways. Cerebellar dysfunctions could impair reading by affecting motor or motor-related skills (such as oculomotor control, automatization, or articulation), or by disturbing linguistic-related processes (such as phonological or semantic processing). Second, different subtypes of dyslexia are associated with abnormalities in distinct cerebellar regions. For example, dyslexic readers with automatization deficits showed abnormal neural activities in the anterior parts of the cerebellum, which were responsible for motor processing, whereas dyslexic readers suffering from visual and phonological deficits were associated with the abnormalities in the gray matter volume of the posterolateral areas of the cerebellum, which were mainly responsible for high-level cognitive processing. These results indicate that the relationship between dyslexia and the cerebellum is not unitary. There may exist multiple cerebellar areas being targeted by dyslexia, which also contribute differently to reading. <p id="p00008">The causal relationships between cerebellar abnormalities and dyslexia might be bi-directional. Previous literature found that structural deficits in the posterolateral parts of the cerebellum were only associated with dyslexia compared to other development disorders (i.e., ADHD, autism) that may coexist with dyslexia. This result suggests that neural abnormalities in these areas were due to deficits in reading abilities rather than other comorbidities. Additionally, these regions vary in their causal relationships with dyslexia. For example, activation in the anterior parts of the right lobule VI, responsible for motor processing, showed greater activation or functional connectivity with the cerebrum in dyslexic readers compared to normal readers. These increased neural activities may be the compensatory mechanisms of dyslexia and a by-product of reading difficulties. In contrast, neural activities of the cerebellar areas responsible for linguistic processing (i.e., the right lobule VII) could predict future reading abilities, indicating that the functional state of the cerebellum in early developmental stages may influence reading development. Moreover, functional deactivations in the cerebellar linguistic areas have been observed in preschool readers with a high risk of dyslexia, suggesting that cerebellar abnormalities have occurred before formal reading instruction. These results jointly support that cerebellar abnormalities may be the cause of dyslexia. <p id="p00006">The results mentioned above illustrate that the cerebellum is more than a reading-related hub. There could be multiple cerebellar regions that are engaged in reading, with different regions supporting different cognitive processes and having distinct causal relationships with dyslexia. Accordingly, we introduced the "cerebro-cerebellar mapping hypothesis of word reading", which proposed that reading-related regions in the cerebellum map to their functional correspondence areas in the cerebrum. Regions with the same functions across the cerebrum and cerebellum synchronized in neural activities and collaborated during reading. Dysfunctions of this collaboration may lead to dyslexia. This new framework aims to reveal the relationship between reading, the cerebellum, and the cerebrum from a new perspective, and offers important insights into the neural mechanism of dyslexia and the role of the cerebellum in high-level cognitive processing.

Chasing the Anchor: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Perceptual Anchoring Deficits in Developmental Dyslexia.

Purpose We report the results of a systematic review and meta-analysis investigating the relationship between perceptual anchoring and dyslexia. Our goal was to assess the direction and degree of the effect between perceptual anchoring and reading ability in typical and atypical (i.e., dyslexic) readers. Method We performed a literature search of experiments explicitly assessing perceptual anchoring and reading ability using PsycInfo (Ovid, 1860-2020), MEDLINE (Ovid, 1860-2019), EMBASE (Ovid, 1883-2019), and PubMed for all available years up to June (2020). Our eligibility criteria consisted of English language articles, and, at minimum, one experimental group identified as dyslexic-either by reading assessment at the time or by previous diagnosis. We assessed for risk of bias using an adapted version of the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale. Eight studies were included in this review and meta-analysis (n = 422 participants). Results The overall effect was negative, moderate, and statistically significant; g = -0.70, 95% confidence interval [-1.10, -0.29]: a negative effect size indicating less perceptual anchoring in dyslexic versus nondyslexic groups. Visual assessment of funnel plot and Egger's test suggest minimal bias but with significant heterogeneity; Q (7) = 17.03, prediction interval [-1.79, 0.40]. Conclusions Of the included studies, we find evidence for a moderate perceptual anchoring deficit in individuals with dyslexia. The primary limitation of the current review is the small number of included studies. The variability of effect sizes appears consistent with the inherent variability within subtypes of dyslexia.

Children With Chinese Dyslexia Acquiring English Literacy: Interaction Between Cognitive Subtypes of Dyslexia and Orthographies

This study investigated the impact of Chinese dyslexia subtypes on English literacy skills (i.e., reading fluency and dictation) in Hong Kong children. Eighty-four Cantonese-speaking children officially diagnosed with dyslexia (Mage = 103 months) and 48 age-matched typically developing (TD) children were tested. Cluster analysis with performances on Chinese syllable awareness (CSA), Chinese phonemic awareness (CPA), Chinese phonological memory (CPM), Chinese orthographic awareness (COA), and matrix reasoning (MR) yielded three cognitive subtypes: the phonological deficit (PD) subtype, the orthographic deficit (OD) subtype, and the global deficit (GD) subtype. After controlling for English language experience, age, and gender, all three dyslexia subtype groups performed significantly worse in English word reading fluency and dictation than the TD children. In addition, the PD group performed worse in English PA; the OD group performed worse in English OA; and the GD group performed worse in all English skills except English PM. We compared the level of impairment in literacy between languages and dyslexia subtypes. In word reading fluency, all subtype groups experienced less impairment in English than Chinese, while the OD group showed the largest English advantage. In dictation, only the OD group showed a significant language effect favoring English. The findings suggest that different subtypes of Chinese dyslexia bear different risks for difficulties in English literacy.

Ocorrência dos processos cognitivos de leitura e escrita e habilidades perceptovisuais em escolares com Dislexia Visual

to evaluate and classify visual dyslexic students, considering that developmental dyslexia subtypes are not differentiated in most diagnoses and that they affect a generalized approach. Cross-sectional, observational, analytical study composed of 80 students, divided into two groups, GA (dyslexics) and GB (without complaints of learning difficulties) using PROLEC (proof of assessment of reading processes), TVPS - 3 (Visual Test of Perceptual Skills) and TPMBO (Bruininks-Oseretsky Motor Proficiency Test) - subtests 7 and 8. Comparing the groups, the students of GA presented inferior performance in all the PROLEC tests and in the TVPS3 tests. The TPMBO tests of visuomotor coordination and manual dexterity tests were inferior. In a second stage, screening the visual dyslexics, 12 (30%) schoolchildren were found, who presented better performance in reading frequent words, when compared to the performance in reading infrequent words and pseudowords. In the visual perceptual skills (TVPS-3), they obtained values below 50%, except for the subscale constancy of form. The occurrences of exchanges in reading aloud were in confusion of letters, syllables or words with little difference in the way of writing, but different in the direction, the same students did not present exchanges or confusions between letters, which have the same point and manner of articulation, and whose sounds are acoustically close. Thus, characterizing the dyslexia subtype is fundamental, because the application of therapeutic techniques will depend on the correct focus of the observed changes. Therefore, an accurate and multidisciplinary diagnosis is required.

Speech-Brain Frequency Entrainment of Dyslexia with and without Phonological Deficits.

Developmental dyslexia is a cognitive disorder characterized by difficulties in linguistic processing. Our purpose is to distinguish subtypes of developmental dyslexia by the level of speech–EEG frequency entrainment (δ: 1–4; β: 12.5–22.5; γ1: 25–35; and γ2: 35–80 Hz) in word/pseudoword auditory discrimination. Depending on the type of disabilities, dyslexics can divide into two subtypes—with less pronounced phonological deficits (NoPhoDys—visual dyslexia) and with more pronounced ones (PhoDys—phonological dyslexia). For correctly recognized stimuli, the δ-entrainment is significantly worse in dyslexic children compared to controls at a level of speech prosody and syllabic analysis. Controls and NoPhoDys show a stronger δ-entrainment in the left-hemispheric auditory cortex (AC), anterior temporal lobe (ATL), frontal, and motor cortices than PhoDys. Dyslexic subgroups concerning normolexics have a deficit of δ-entrainment in the left ATL, inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), and the right AC. PhoDys has higher δ-entrainment in the posterior part of adjacent STS regions than NoPhoDys. Insufficient low-frequency β changes over the IFG, the inferior parietal lobe of PhoDys compared to NoPhoDys correspond to their worse phonological short-term memory. Left-dominant 30 Hz-entrainment for normolexics to phonemic frequencies characterizes the right AC, adjacent regions to superior temporal sulcus of dyslexics. The pronounced 40 Hz-entrainment in PhoDys than the other groups suggest a hearing “reassembly” and a poor phonological working memory. Shifting up to higher-frequency γ-entrainment in the AC of NoPhoDys can lead to verbal memory deficits. Different patterns of cortical reorganization based on the left or right hemisphere lead to differential dyslexic profiles.

Categorical and Dimensional Diagnoses of Dyslexia: Are They Compatible?

Dyslexia is often assessed using categorical diagnoses, and subtypes of dyslexia are also recognized in a categorical fashion. Children may meet the criteria for dyslexia, and they may more specifically meet the criteria for a subtype of it, and thus get a diagnosis. This approach to diagnosis clashes with the actual distribution of reading performance in children (which is normal and continuous), and it has received criticism. This article offers a conceptual framework for conciliating these two positions. In short, the proposal is to use a set of multicomponent continuous assessments of reading, rather than thresholds. The proposal is explained using original data obtained from a sample of 30 children (age 7 to 11), tested in the United Kingdom. Using an assessment based on categorical-thresholds, only five children in our sample qualify for extra assistance, and only one may get a diagnosis of dyslexia, while with the mixed system proposed, a few additional children in the gray area would receive attention. This approach would not discard previous categorical approaches such as those distinguishing between surface and phonological dyslexia, but it would rather see these subtypes of dyslexia as the instance of a lower score on the continuum obtained on a single component of the multicomponent assessment.

Spelling errors reveal underlying sequential and spatial processing deficits in adults with dyslexia

ABSTRACT Recent studies showed that some adults with dyslexia have difficulty processing sequentially arranged information. In a companion study, this deficit manifested as low accuracy during a word pair comparison task involving same/different decisions when two words differed in their letter sequences. This sequential deficit was associated with left/right spatial letter confusion. In the present study, we found the same underlying difficulty with sequential and spatial letter processing during word spelling. Participants were the same 22 adults with dyslexia and 20 age- and gender-matched controls as in the companion study. In the spelling task, sequential error rates were higher in the dyslexia group, compared to the controls. Measures of accuracy of serial letter order during the spelling task and the word comparison task were correlated. Only three participants, each with dyslexia, produced left/right letter reversals during spelling. These were the same participants who produced left/right errors when naming single letters. They also had profound difficulty with sequential and left/right letter processing in the spelling and word comparison tasks, and they had the most severe spelling impairment. We conclude that this pervasive, persistent difficulty with sequential and spatial reversals contributes to a severe dyslexia subtype. In the dyslexia group as a whole, additional and separate sources of errors were underspecified word representations in long-term memory and homophone errors that likely represent language-based deficits in word knowledge. In the participants, these three factors (sequential/spatial letter confusion, underspecified word form representation, language-based deficits) occurred either as single factors or in combination with each other.

Global and Local Visual Processing in Rate/Accuracy Subtypes of Dyslexia.

Words are processed in both a global and local manner. Studies on global versus local processing styles in individuals with and without dyslexia are inconclusive. In the present study, we investigated whether distinct patterns of global/local visual processing were associated with more precisely defined dyslexia profiles. Previous studies on dyslexia provide evidence of accuracy- and rate-based subtypes, with impairment in one dimension alongside normal performance in the other. In the current study, three groups of adult readers: rate disability, accuracy disability, typical development, were presented with nonlinguistic global /local congruency task. The results revealed that the rate disability group had deficiencies performing the global task while the accuracy disability group had deficiencies in the local task. These results are discussed in the context of global/local word processing and in relation to dyslexia. Specifically, they suggest that different patterns of global/local processing are observed between different types of dyslexics, and imply that practitioners should modify their treatment based on the specific deficiency.