Submarine Detection Research Articles

Biologically-inspired radar and sonar systems

In the last century both radar and sonar active technology developed from inception to the point where high resolution images can be obtained from long ranges. The available technology can exploit Doppler effects, structural resonances, nonlinear scattering, synthetic aperture platforms, and sediment-penetrating modalities. Active sonar and radar share many common approaches, in part because of the similarities of the problems they address, both in the military and commercial research areas. Moreover, in the last two decades, research into both radar and sonar has explored biomimetic and bioinspired solutions [1-5], in recognition of the fact that whilst man-made systems have access to power and bandwidth far beyond that available to any living organism [6], some biological solutions have benefitted from millions of years of natural optimisation to evolve sensing capabilities and strategies and meet the challenges of survival (finding food and mates, avoiding predators, sensing and navigating to and within appropriate habitats, etc.) [7]. Problem solving for survival goes beyond the particular radiation used in sensing, covering also signal processing, detection and classification of targets, use of platforms, and strategies for deploying sensors and interpreting data [8-10]. Bio-inspired approaches follow logically when the problems facing manufactured technology resemble those addressed in nature. For example, in the last 15 years the arena for sonar challenge has changed from the passive detection of large quiet nuclear submarines in the deep, relatively quiet and uncluttered waters, to minehunting by active sonar in shallow coastal waters [11], a problem far closer to that faced by dolphins and bats in their natural environments [12,13].

Editorial

Editorial

Who knew piezoelectricity? Rutherford and Langevin on submarine detection and the invention of sonar

During World War I, submarine detection presented a strategic technological challenge, which inspired, among others, the invention of new methods and the employment of a hitherto unused scientific phenomenon. Two prominent physicists, Ernest Rutherford and Paul Langevin, independently suggested the use of this phenomenon: piezoelectricity. Yet they employed it in different ways, leading Rutherford to a useful, if limited, measuring device and Langevin to sonar. Contrary to a claim that is commonly made, Rutherford's work did not lead to sonar. These different results originated on one hand in diverging goals of the two physicists, and on the other in Langevin's more extensive knowledge of and practice with piezoelectricity, which allowed him to manipulate the crystals and contrive the novel ultrasonic design required. Nevertheless, previous encounters with the effect and prior familiarity with it were crucial for its employment by both.

잠수함 탐지 효과도 증대를 위한 대잠 헬기 임무 할당 방안 연구

본 연구에서는 함정에 탑재돼 운용되는 대잠헬기의 잠수함 탐지능력 증대시키기 위한 임무 할당 방안을 제안하였다. 이를 위해 대잠헬기가 대잠 탐색 임무 중에 수행하는 행동 및 행동들 간의 연간관계를 분석하여 모델링하였다. 또한 대잠 헬기가 수행하는 대잠 탐색 임무의 효과도를 정량적으로 측정하기 위한 지표들을 정의하였다. 설계된 모델링 결과를 이용해 효과도를 분석하기 위한 시나리오를 구성하였으며, 시나리오 및 대잠 탐색 임무 시 대잠 헬기와 상호작용하는 아군 수상함 및 적 잠수함과 관련된 주요 설정값을 적용하여 시뮬레이션을 수행하였다. 시뮬레이션 결과를 활용해 임무의 효과도에 영향을 줄 수 있는 대잠 헬기 디핑 소나의 운용 간격, 반복적인 탐색 임무 수행 시의 패턴에 따른 효과도를 분석하여, 효과적인 대잠 탐색 임무 할당 방안을 제안하였다. In this paper, a method to allocate a submarine search mission to an ASW(Anti-Submarine Warfare) helicopter is proposed. The aim of the proposed method is to increase the submarine detection capability. For this purpose, we modeled the behaviors that the ASW helicopter conduct during the search mission, and the relations between the behaviors are also modeled. To measure quantitatively the effectiveness of ASW search mission, the measure of effectiveness(MOP) is defined. Scenarios are designed to analyze the effectiveness utilizing the ASW mission model. We conducted simulations applying the designed scenarios and some parameters concerned with the friendly ship and the enemy submarine interacting each other in the ASW missions. We analyzed the result of simulation depending on the dipping interval and the pattern of dipping positions in the situation that the helicopter operates for a long time and should resupply several times on the friendly ship. From the analyzed data, we suggested the practical value of ratio between the detectable range of the sonar and the dipping interval to improve the effectiveness of ASW mission.

Owen Martin Phillips

Owen Martin Phillips

War and Peacetime Research on the Road to Crystal Frequency Control

Crystal frequency control, an essential ingredient in the electronics revolution, was invented in the aftermath of World War I by Walter Cady. Cady exploited his thorough knowledge of a scientific phenomenon called piezoelectricity, on which he gathered expertise during a wartime crash program in submarine detection, the first technological application of the phenomenon. With armistice Cady, a university professor of physics, could change his focus toward open-ended scientific research. He examined results observed earlier in the attempt to utilize piezoelectric crystals, leading him to the discovery of their sharp and steady resonance. Encouraged by professional and personal relationships with corporations and governmental agencies, and by his war experience, Cady followed his findings to design practical devices. Yet he maintained the identity and practices of a physicist, experimentally and theoretically exploring the phenomena further. Like many scientists, he was an occasional rather than professional inventor. This story reveals connections and overlaps but also differences between the kind of research carried out at an industrial research laboratory and at a university.

Analysing system of systems performance of a carrier strike group conducting anti-submarine warfare

The operation of US and Allied military forces freely and safely across the world's oceans remains a paramount goal of the US Navy, often to be carried out through the deployment of a carrier strike group (CSG). This paper examines the need for an improved anti-submarine warfare (ASW) system to protect a CSG, focusing on the design of an ASW system that is able to thwart an attack through effective, timely, and precise engagement based on the use of tactically significant detection, localisation, tracking and classification of threat submarines. This effort results in the development of system functions and objectives, appropriate metrics, an operational concept, several competing physical architectural alternatives, and conduct of trade-off analysis regarding system performance. Primarily, the focus is on the operational performance of the competing physical architectures, which is defined as the need to detect and defeat an enemy submarine during a typical CSG mission. Potential ASW and CSG components are described, as well as an assessment of several alternative ASW systems within the CSG system of systems, a brief operational concept, and the specifics of the performance modelling effort to include results.

Call localization of marine mammals using directional autonomous recorders.

Directional sensors of low‐frequency acoustic waves have been used by navies in sonobuoys for submarine detection and localization for decades. Composed of an omnidirectional pressure sensor and two horizontal directional elements sensitive to particle motion, they provide information for determining the relative bearing to a sound source without ambiguity. They were adapted for bowhead whale monitoring in the mid‐1980s and have been used in autonomous seafloor acoustic recorders since 2000. Applied to the coastal Beaufort Sea north of Alaska, fall bowhead migration was observed in detail during 2007 and 2008, providing a wealth of information on variability in the migration paths of calling whales and the influence of industrial sounds on the locations of calling whales. For example, many calls were detected within about 30 km of seismic survey activities, where received sound pressure levels from airgun pulses were often greater than 140 dB per 1 μPa. Also, seismic activities were correlated with statistically significant shifts in the whales’ distance from shore, either offshore or inshore. However, interpretation of the results was challenged by the difficulty in distinguishing between a whale that ceases calling and a whale that deflects away from the study area. [Work supported by Shell Oil Co.]

Whale song

Whale song

From ultrasonic to frequency standards: Walter Cady’s discovery of the sharp resonance of crystals

In 1918–1919 Walter G. Cady was the first to recognize the significant electrical consequences of the fact that piezoelectric crystals resonate at very sharp, precise and stable frequencies. Cady was also the first to suggest the employment of these properties, first as frequency standards and then to control frequencies of electric circuits—an essential component in electronic technology. Cady’s discovery originated in the course of research on piezoelectric ultrasonic devices for submarine detection (sonar) during World War I. However, for the discovery Cady had to change his research programme to crystal resonance. This change followed Cady’s experimental findings and the scientific curiosity that they raised, and was helped by the termination of the war. Cady’s transition was also a move from “applied” research, aimed at improving a specific technology, to “pure” research lacking a clear practical aim. This article examines how Cady reached the discovery and his early ideas for its use. It shows that the discovery was not an instantaneous but a gradual achievement. It further suggests that disinterested “scientific” research (rather than “engineering” research) was needed in this process, while research aimed at design was required for the subsequent development of technological devices.

Risks posed to the Antarctic marine environment by acoustic instruments: a structured analysis

The risks posed by a range of acoustic scientific instruments were assessed by the construction of matrices of scale and likelihood. We recognized six levels of impact ranging from none or short term, minimal behavioural response (Level 1) to multiple injuries and fatalities and/or compromised populations (Level 6) and six levels of likelihood ranging from “Expected in almost all instances” (Level 1) to “cannot see how it could happen” (Level 6). Typical scientific instruments ranging from acoustic releases to large air gun arrays were assessed. To provide a perspective for the risks of scientific operations, other activities were also ranked. These included large chemical explosions, submarine detection sonars implicated in some mass strandings of cetaceans and normal Antarctic shipping activities. The conclusion reached was that most scientific instruments pose a similar or lower risk than normal shipping operations. High source-level equipment poses some risk to individual animals' hearing and so should be mitigated. Likewise, survey planning should be designed to avoid trapping animals in narrow, constricted sea ways. Long term, cumulative impacts are still difficult to detect in areas with greater anthropogenic noise than the Antarctic but we concluded that any possible long term impacts should be mitigated by maintaining the low levels of activity using high source-level equipment through data sharing and survey planning.

Ian Donald: A Memoir

Many books could be written about the great character Ian Donald of Glasgow. One could be an account of the origins of ultrasound, how Donald developed the science from undersea submarine detection to equipment which revolutionized firstly obstetrics and then other medical fields. Another book could be about his passion for caring for patients and the meticulous care he gave them through his life; Donald was selfish for all he believed in, and fought valiantly for it. Others could write of the strongly held Christian faith of the man and how it ruled his culture and attitudes to contraception and abortion and the battles this led him into. This short volume is a panegyric by two of his apostles which, like the centre of a Venn diagram, takes in all areas of Donald's life. All who worked with Ian Donald were affected by him. The late James Willocks and Wallis Barr have faithfully followed the Donald story chronologically. Early formative years are considered only briefly. Donald's medical career is then laid out with natural emphasis on the Glasgow years and his part in the teaching and research side of that university. His work in the design and construction of the Queen Mother's Hospital is traced; that building remains his monument. About a quarter of the book is quite rightly devoted to ultrasound, Donald's great legacy. This account reads well, for the authors were there through the formative years. A larger and more detailed biography of this hero of Scottish medicine is needed, but until it comes the memoir is an excellent libra brevis.

William D. Coolidge and ductile tungsten

This paper presents achievements and contributions of William D. Coolidge in the field of electrotechnology. Coolidge discovered a new method of producing ductile tungsten by a combination of reducing impurities and carefully controlled mechanical working. He also became known for his contribution to the development of improved X-ray tube and vacuum tube electronics. During the first world war, he helped developed portable X-ray apparatus for use by military and also worked on project for the sound detection of enemy submarines.

William Markley McKinney, MD (1930–2003)

The neurologic world has lost one of its most enthusiastic, innovative, and supportive citizens. Best known for his pioneering work in the development and use of ultrasound for neurologic disorders, including stroke, Dr. William M. McKinney died of lung cancer on October 24, 2003.⇓ William Markley McKinney A native of Roanoke, Virginia, Bill did collegiate studies at Washington and Lee University and the University of North Carolina. In 1951, he was activated by the US Navy to become Operations Officer on a destroyer in Korea—in charge of submarine detection using ultrasound—before entering the University of Virginia School of Medicine. He was awarded his MD in 1959 and subsequently served his internship and residency in neurology with T.R. Johns. This included a stint at the National Hospital, Queen Square, London. In 1963, he joined the Bowman Gray School of Medicine in Winston-Salem, North Carolina (now Wake Forest University Baptist Medical Center), the institution at which he remained for the rest of his medical career. Among his …

Superdirective and gradient sensor arrays

During the late 1960s and the 1970s, underwater acoustic investigators examined superdirective and gradient sensor systems in order to enhance submarine detection capabilities for surface ships and maritime aircraft. Simple gradient processing had already been used in both in-air acoustic systems (cardioid and super-cardioid microphones) as well as radio and radar applications. Superdirective techniques were known [R. L. Pritchard, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 25, 879 (1953)] and sometimes exploited in radar systems. It was quickly demonstrated that simple gradient sensors and modest degrees of superdirective array processing were possible, although self-noise and the ability to calibrate hydrophones limited the processing gains achievable. Circular superdirective arrays were used extensively by the Defence Research Establishment Atlantic for noise directionality measurements in the frequency range 4 Hz to about 1 kHz and considered for naval ASW applications until the superiority of oil-filled conventional arrays became apparent. Nevertheless, the significant theoretical and practical development of spatial harmonic beamforming and direction finding was completed. Although much of this work was not considered classified, neither was it widely published. This presentation will review the concepts developed and progress made. Beamforming, noise mitigation and calibration issues are covered.

Temporal impact of selected GPS errors on point positioning

This paper is aimed at investigating the stability of point positions over time in support of applications that require high position stability when differential GPS is not feasible. One such application is the use of a P3-Orion aircraft offshore for magnetic measurement in support of submarine detection. Temporal changes in several GPS errors lead to variability in the computed positions, so it is not the absolute errors, but rather their temporal variations that are of importance. Furthermore, the temporal variability of the different error sources may dictate a certain algorithm approach and processing strategy. This paper analyzes the temporal variations of the broadcast satellite clock model and orbit parameters, as well as ionospheric errors, because these will typically be the dominant errors for real-time point positioning. These three errors are analyzed independently. A tropospheric correction is applied when computing all of the position results, so the tropospheric error itself is not investigated. Satellite clock and orbit errors are analyzed by comparing broadcast and precise post-mission SV clock corrections and orbits. For the ionosphere, the effect is separated using dual-frequency data. The analysis comprises primarily of assessing error behaviors and magnitudes through time and frequency analyses. In this way, the differences in variability of the errors are easily determined. The effect of each error in the position domain is also investigated in addition to the combined effect. Results show that, on a typical day when single frequency data are processed with broadcast orbit and clock data, the root mean square (RMS) of the changes in the position errors over a 50-s interval is about 5.8 cm in northing, 4.0 in easting, and 11.0 cm in height. When using precise orbits and clocks, in addition to dual frequency data, these values improve by 46–56% to 2.7 cm in northing, 2.2 cm in easting, and 4.9 cm in height. Under severe ionospheric activity, the RMS of the errors decrease from 8.1 to 3.3 cm in northing, 5.7 to 2.6 cm in easting, and 17.0 to 4.9 cm in height, which are improvements of 54–71%.

Warren Elliot Henry

Warren Elliot Henry

Data association in multi-target detection using the transferable belief model

In the transferable belief model, a model for the quantified representation of beliefs, some masses can be allocated to the empty set. It reflects the conflict between the sources of information. This quantified conflict can be used in order to solve the problem of data association in a multi-target detection problem. We present and illustrate the procedure by studying an example based on the detection of submarines. Their number and the association of each sensor to a particular source are determined by the procedure.

Du laboratoire de la guerre sous-marine de Toulon au laboratoire de mécanique et d’acoustique de Marseille

From the Laboratory for Submarine Warfare in Toulon to the Laboratory of Mechanics and Acoustics in Marseilles Submarine detection was one of the most important areas of research during World War I and one in which scientists from all the countries at war took part. The French naval research center was installed in Toulon under the direction of François Canac. In 1939, it became the Centre de Recherche de la Marine (CMR). At the end of June 1940, the personel and material hastily embarked aboard the Mariette Pacha. After reaching Oran and travelling by train to Algiers, the Centre de Recherche de la Marine was installed in a school for girls, Mustapha Supérieur. The underwater acoustics service was relocated at the seaport next to the Admiralty and the Yacht Club. The CMR was disbanded at the end of August 1940 following the Armistice. F. Canac tried to save the laboratory and he succeeded. On October 4, 1940, the Ministry of Public Instruction decided to take charge of the laboratory. This decision was approved by the Ministry of the Navy on October 10. F. Canac was given the responsibility for finding a new location. He chose Marseilles, the city the most important, the largest and most central for maritime purposes. The Prefect of the Bouches-du-Rhône made available premises up to then occupied by the Health Services. On November 4, the Dean of the Faculty of Sciences announced to his colleagues that the Centre d'étude de la Marine was shortly to be installed at Marseilles and attached to CNRS. F. Canac headed the laboratory until 1958. Founder of the journal Acustica, he published a work in 1967 on the acoustics of the theaters of antiquity. The acoustics service developed considerably under his leadership, with the creation of laboratories of electroacoustics, architectural acoustics, underwater acoustics and ultrasounds. François Canac was succeeded by Théodore Vogel. On December 20, 1962, the executive board decided to change the laboratory's name to Centre de recherches physiques (CRP, Center for Physics Research). When Théodore Vogel retired in 1973, the laboratory had a Department of Mechanics and a Department of Acoustics. On July 10, 1973, the executive board deemed it desirable that the laboratory take the name of Laboratoire de mécanique et d’acoustique (LMA, Laboratory of Mechanics and Acoustics), a name that better describes its activities and which it still bears today.

The detection of complex submarine signals: A study of the linear frequency modulation criterium

The objective of this work is to know, in the context of submarine detection, what is the effect of a linear frequency modulation on the detection of glissando’s signals. Indeed, this frequency modulation is often present in submarine signals, whether of biological or mechanical origin. Different types of glissandos are considered, increasing, increasing–decreasing, increasing with plateau, and decreasing. Differences have not been noted between the detection thresholds for the first three types of signals. In general, the detection threshold is very close to the maximum frequency of the signals threshold. In the case of a decreasing glissando, it can be noticed that the detection threshold is lower by a few dB than the threshold of the signal’s highest frequency.