Sex Of Subject Research Articles

Mediation of Interpersonal Expectancy Effects: Expectancies About the Elderly

Two studies explored the behavioral mediation of interpersonal expectancy effects. In Study 1, undergraduates were asked to teach a task via videotape to a target they believed was either another college student their age or an elderly woman. In Study 2, naive undergraduates were yoked to the videotapes made in Study 1; their performance on the task and their perceptions of the perceiver were assessed. Several effects due to the expectancy manipulation and to interactions between the expectancy and the subject's sex were obtained. Subjects who believed they were teaching an elderly target, especially the women, taught less material, were more nervous, and were less friendly

Peak Torque Occurrence in the Range of Motion During Isokinetic Extension and Flexion of the Knee

The purpose of this study was to 1) assess the knee angles of hamstring and quadriceps peak torques at slow (60 degrees.sec-1) and moderate (180 degrees.sec-1) isokinetic velocities in healthy adult males (N = 143) and females (N = 106), 2) determine if velocity has an effect on these peak torque angles, and 3) determine if subject's age, sex, and muscle strength have an effect on the results. The Cybex II dynamometer was used to record the measurements. At 60 degrees.sec-1, the mean peak torque for the hamstrings occurred at 33 degrees for men and 37 degrees for women (p < 0.001) (0 degree = full extension). At 180 degrees.sec-1, the corresponding angles were 40 and 44 degrees (p < 0.01). In both groups the increase was 7 degrees (p < 0.001). At 60 degrees.sec-1, the peak torque angle of the quadriceps was 54 degrees in both groups. At 180 degrees.sec-1, the angle occurred significantly later in men (11 degrees later) and in women (10 degrees later) (p < 0.001 for both). Subject's age (18 to 40 years) did not affect the results. In female hamstrings, the knee angle of peak torque had a highly significant (p < 0.001) negative correlation to muscle strength; that is, in female hamstrings, the peak torque angles occurred later in the range of motion when muscle strength decreased. This possibly explained the difference observed between men and women in the peak torque angles of hamstrings. In conclusion, people involved in isokinetic testing of muscular performance should be aware that the peak torque occurs later in the range of motion with increasing angular velocity, especially when testing weak muscle groups. In high angular velocities this may become a problem since the limb may pass the optimal joint position for muscular performance, and the recorded peak torque may not represent the subject's maximal torque capacity.

Acquaintance versus stranger rape: Testing the ambiguity reduction hypothesis

AbstractAfter reading a vignette about a hypothetical rape incident, 240 undergraduate students of the University of Bombay recommended imprisonment for the rapist and attributed fault to the rape victim. The experiment had a 2 (subject's sex) 2 (schoolteacher versus callgirl victim) × 2 (acquainted versus stranger rapist) × 2 (victim's physical resistance versus no physical resistance) factorial design with 15 subjects per cell. As predicted, attributed victim's fault was greater and recommended rapist's imprisonment was shorter with male rather than female subjects, with the callgirl rather than schoolteacher victim, and with no physical resistance rather than with physical resistance. Greater fault was also attributed to the acquainted rather than unacquainted victim. These main effects and the interaction effects were discussed primarily in light of the proposition that acquaintance rape is viewed less seriously than stranger rape because of ambiguity regarding the acquainted victim's consent.

Personal meanings of death: A content analysis of free-response narratives

Abstract Despite the proliferation of research on death attitudes, relatively little attention has been paid to idiosyncratic meanings of death, as opposed to the large volume of work on death anxiety using standardized measures. This study applied a reliable coding system to narrative descriptions of the meaning of death contributed by 504 respondents. Content analysis of these free-form responses suggested that constructions of death differed significantly depending on the subject's sex, health status, previous history of suicide attempts or ideation, and death fear or threat. Most importantly, respondents professing a coherent “personal philosophy of death” viewed death as more purposeful, expected, and involving some form of continued existence, whereas those without such a philosophy wrote narratives implying a negative evaluation, low acceptance, and low understanding of death. Modifications of the coding system for use with free-response data are suggested, along with applications of the method to ...

Attitudes Toward Sexual Harassment of Women in India1

A hypothetical incident of sexual harassment at the workplace was presented to 720 undergraduate students of the University of Bombay who attributed blame to the female victim of a superordinate male harasser and rated the appropriateness of her response to the harassment. The experiment had a 2 (Subject's Sex) × 3 (Victim's Marital Status: unmarried, married, or divorced) × 2 (Type of Harassment: verbal vs. physical) × 4 (Victim's Response: ignoring, complaining, scolding, or slapping) between‐subjects factorial design with 15 subjects per cell. Male subjects blamed the victim of harassment more than female subjects, the unmarried and married victims were blamed more than the divorced victim, and the ignoring victim was blamed more than the complaining, scolding, and slapping victims. Perceived appropriateness of victim's response was higher with the divorced victim as compared to the unmarried and married victims, with physical harassment as compared to verbal harassment, and with the complaining, scolding, and slapping victims as compared to the ignoring victim. A three‐way interaction on perceived appropriateness suggested that female subjects, as compared to male subjects, were more in favor of strong self‐assertive action against harassment, but relatively less so in the case of the unmarried victim.

Labeling relaxation procedures: Impact on adolescent's self-report of effectiveness

Adolescents are being taught relaxation techniques by health-care professionals with increased frequency. The present study examined the effect, on self-reported relaxation, of labeling passive relaxation techniques as “hypnotic relaxation” or as “relaxation training.” Subjects were 64 adolescent college students who scored above the 50th percentile, from a subject pool of 189 potential subjects, on the Spielberger Trait Anxiety Inventory. A two by two by two factorial design was utilized with sex, label (hypnotic relaxation versus relaxation training) and relaxation technique (hypnotic induction versus autogenic training) as the independent variables. Under the guise of an investigation of the physiologic correlates of relaxation, subjects were assigned at random to one of four groups. Manipulations of label and relaxation technique were presented on tape via an intercom system. The dependent variable, perceived degree of relaxation, was obtained using a form presented as a “double check” of the accuracy of the physiologic monitoring equipment to which subjects seemingly were attached. Results indicate that the label attached to relaxation techniques can have a significant effect on an individual's subjective report of relaxation depending on the subject's sex.

Indian college students' attitudes toward abortion in different contexts.

Two experimental studies used the hypothetical situation of a pregnant woman (the stimulus person) considering the possibility of an abortion and obtained from Bombay college students estimates of the likelihood of an abortion and their own recommendations in favor of abortion. The first study had a 2 (subject's sex) × 2 (reason for abortion: unplanned child vs. female child) × 2 (person more in favor of abortion: stimulus person vs. her husband) × 3 (stimulus person's socioeconomic status: upper, middle, or lower class) factorial design with 15 subjects per cell. Male subjects indicated greater likelihood of abortion than female subjects. Recommendations were stronger for the unplanned rather than female child and for the lower class rather than upper and middle class stimulus persons. The second study had a 2 (subject's sex) × 3 (reason for abortion: unplanned marital pregnancy, premarital pregnancy, or rape pregnancy) × 3 (stimulus person's socioeconomic status: upper, middle, or lower class) factorial design with 15 subjects per cell. Perceived likelihood and strength of recommendation were highest for rape pregnancy followed by premarital pregnancy and marital pregnancy in that order. The interactions in this study suggested a greater vulnerability of the middle class as compared to the other two classes with respect to sexual morality.

Psychometric evaluation of the Stanford Sleepiness Scale.

Two assumptions underlying the Stanford Sleepiness Scale (SSS) were evaluated: that the descriptors defining each level of the scale are equivalent ways of characterizing a particular level of sleepiness; and that sleepiness, thus measured, is an unidimensional construct. Twenty-four True/False items were derived from the descriptors at each level of the SSS. This revised scale was administered to 340 undergraduates in a questionnaire which also included: the SSS; four visual analogue scales; items identifying the subject's age, sex, and circadian type; and the time of administration. Analyses of the responses indicated that endorsement of items on the revised scale was not consistent with the SSS level endorsed, indicating that the descriptors at each scale level are not equivalent. A principal components analysis revealed two components, tentatively identified as activation and sleepiness, accounting, respectively, for 24.2 and 20.6% of the variance. It was concluded that sleepiness is not an unidimensional construct. Further studies are necessary to elucidate the nature of its components.

The Acquaintance Predicament of a Rape Victim1

The acquaintance predicament of a rape victim was examined in six experiments with between‐subjects designs with samples drawn from the undergraduate student population of the University of Bombay. The experiments used rape vignettes for the manipulation of all independent variables except subject's sex and were done in three pairs such that each pair had the same independent variables and first dependent measure, namely, recommended years of imprisonment for the rapist. The second dependent measure was attributed victim's fault in the first experiment and perceived likelihood of rape in the second experiment of each pair. The first pair of experiments had a 2 (subject's sex) × 2 (acquainted vs. unacquainted rapist) × 3 (rapist's status: manager, stenotypist, or watchman) × 2 (complaint vs. no complaint by victim) design, with the rape victim being described as a stenotypist. The second pair of experiments differed from the first pair in only one respect, with victim's marital status (married vs. divorced victim) replacing the independent variable of complaint of the first pair. The third pair of experiments had a 2 (subject's sex) × 2 (physically hurt vs. not hurt victim) × 5 (rapist's relationship with victim: husband, fiance, friend, acquaintance, or stranger) design. Female subjects, as compared to male subjects, recommended longer imprisonment for the rapist, attributed less fault to the victim, and perceived greater likelihood of rape. The victim was attributed less fault in case of stranger rape versus acquaintance rape and also less fault in the complaint versus the no complaint condition. Longer imprisonment was recommended for the rapist when the victim was physically hurt rather than not hurt.

Electrical and Magnetic Neural Activity Electrophysiological Correlates of Auditory Lexical Decision: An Attempt To Test The “Cohort Model”

The electrophysiological correlates of spoken word recognition were investigated in an auditory lexical decision task. N4 and P7 waves were found at Cz and Pz for both words and nonwords, with significantly higher peak amplitudes for the latter; this result was independent of subject's sex and of hand usage for the task response. The results were then analyzed in terms of the "Recognition Point" for words and nonwords as defined in Marslen-Wilson's "Cohort Model" of auditory word recognition (Marslen-Wilson & Welsh 1978). A correlation was found between nonword "Recognition Point" latency and the associated late positive wave. The contribution of the "Cohort Model" to electrophysiological investigation of auditory word-recognition is discussed.

Social Perception as a Function of Machiavellianism

Abstract Using a hypothetical situation describing a stimulus person who succeeds or fails to win a desired promotion through merit or influence, we tested the hypotheses that greater ethical sensitivity in their evaluation of the stimulus person would be displayed by low compared with high Machiavellians and by female compared with male subjects. The experiment employed a 2 × 2 × 2× 2 (Subject's Machiavellanism × Subject's Sex × Stimulus Person's Merit vs. Influence × Stimulus Person's Success vs. Failure) factorial design, with 10 subjects per cell. The dependent measures were ratings of the stimulus person on intelligence, morality, and likability. The stimulus person with merit was rated more favorably on all three dimensions than the person with influence. Female subjects showed a greater ethical sensitivity in their evaluations compared with male subjects. The expectation that low would show greater ethical sensitivity than high Machiavellians was supported only in the case of female subjects; a som...

The Long Term Effect of Parental Divorce:

The present study examined the effects of a subject's sex, level of religiosity, and marital history of family origin on the development on marital role expectations in a sample of 80 college students. The results indicated that the marital roles expectations were a result of an interaction of the three variables examined. While it has been proposed that parental divorce leads to the development of "inappropriate" marital role expectations, the present study failed to support this conclusion. It appears that marital role development is the result of a complex interaction of a number of variables and not as easily explained as some would suggest. The differential influence of religiosity on the development of marital role expectation is discussed with implications for further research. The "role-model" rationale of the transmission of marital instability is discussed in light of these results.

Personality Factors, Family Structure, and Sex of Drawn Figure on the Draw-A-Person Test

One hundred seventy-four youthful psychiatric inpatients were given the Draw-A-Person Test (DAP) as part of an assessment battery. Sex of person drawn was compared to subject's sex, Achenbach aggression and delinquency scores, and scores on Children's Inventory of Anger and Nowicki-Strickland Locus of Control Scale. The sex of the person drawn was also compared to family composition, specifically whether or not the child came from an intact family with both a male and female parent or role model. Results support drawing of a same-sexed individual as normative, regardless of age or sex. Adolescent girls and young boys were the only groups that differed significantly from this norm. Personality measures and family composition were not significantly related to the tendency to draw same versus opposite sex.

Professorial Prestige as a Function of Discipline and Gender

To examine gender bias in professional prestige, 200 male and 200 female undergraduate students of Bombay University were asked to rate the respectability of 20 academic disciplines, each with male and female incumbents (e.g., a male professor of anthropology, a female professor of anthropology, etc.)‐ The study thus had a 2 (subject's sex) × 2 (incumbent's gender) × 20 (academic disciplines) mixed ANOVA design with incumbent's, that is, professor's gender and disciplines as within‐subjects factors. All the main and interaction effects were significant. The results showed an overall higher respectability rating of the female professor as compared to her male counterpart, this difference being stronger with female subjects than with male subjects. More importantly, the higher respectability rating of the female professor vis‐à‐vis the male professor was found to hold only for lower ranked disciplines.

Effects of cat exposure and cat odors on subsequent amphetamine-induced stereotypy

The effect of exposure to a cat, as a predatory stressor, was examined in male and female rats during subsequent tests of amphetamine-induced stereotypy in which cat odors were present or absent. Rats in Group C/O were given a 15-min exposure session to a male cat while they were protected in a wire cage. They were then given an IP injection of d-amphetamine (1 mg/kg) and tested 30 min later for stereotypy in the presence of cat odors (soiled cat litter). Rats in Group NC/O were given a no-cat-exposure control session, and amphetamine tested with cat odors. Groups C/NO and NC/NO were both tested without cat odors (fresh litter), with the former group having been previously exposed to a cat. During the 90-min test sessions, female rats showed significantly more stereotypy than males. More importantly, the male subjects in group C/O exhibited significantly more stereotypy than the males in the other groups, and group NC/NO males showed the least amount of stereotypy. These findings clearly indicate that amphetamine reactivity is influenced by prior exposure to a predator, the presence of predatory odors during testing, and the subject's sex.

Predicted and Recommended Behavior of a Woman as a Function of Her Inferred Helplessness in the Dowry and Wife‐Beating Predicaments

Two experiments, using hypothetical situations, examined predictions and recommendations regarding a woman's behavior in the dowry and wife‐beating predicaments as a function of her perceived helplessness. The dowry experiment described the situation of a stimulus person who has to decide whether to marry a boy under the dowry condition and had a 2 (subject's sex) × 2 (stimulus person's attractiveness) × 2(stimulus person's age) × 3 (stimulus person's socioeconomic status) factorial design, with estimated likelihood of marrying and recommendation to marry as the two dependent measures. The wife‐beating experiment described the situation of a battered stimulus person who has to decide whether to leave her violent husband and had a 2 (subject's sex) × 2 (stimulus person's economic independence) × 2 (stimulus person's having children) × 3 (stimulus person's socioeconomic status) factorial design, with estimated likelihood of leaving the husband and recommendation to leave the husband as the two dependent measures. The subjects of the two experiments were undergraduate or graduate students of Bombay University, with 15 subjects per cell in the dowry experiment and 13 subjects per cell in the wife‐beating experiment. Female subjects gave a stronger recommendation against marrying under the dowry condition and in favor of leaving the husband than did male subjects. The economically independent women was perceived as more likely to leave the husband than the dependent woman. Results of the wife‐beating experiment suggested greater social constraints, under some conditions, on the middle class woman as compared to upper and lower class women in India.

Cross‐sectional internal diameters of human cervical and femoral blood vessels: Relationship to subject's sex, age, body size

Cross-sectional internal diameter measurements were made of right and left common carotid and right femoral arteries and right and left internal jugular, superficial femoral, and common femoral veins in 32 normal human subjects utilizing duplex ultrasonography. The relationships of these vessel sizes to the subject's sex, age, height, weight, and body surface area were analyzed statistically; and graphs were constructed, indicating the relationship of blood vessel diameters to the various body size parameters. Findings indicate that 1) for the femoral veins, body surface area had the best correlation with the internal diameter of the vein; 2) for the right internal jugular vein, body weight had the best correlation with the internal diameter of the vein; 3) correlation between vein diameter and body size of the subject is better for the femoral veins than for the internal jugular veins; 4) internal diameter of the femoral and internal jugular veins increases about 20% when they are distended by 15 degrees of positional inclination of the subject's body; 5) neither age nor sex of the subject influences the positional distensibility of the veins examined; 6) the cross-sectional internal diameter of the femoral and internal jugular veins, as determined by duplex ultrasonography, closely relates to the external diameter of these vessels as measured by direct in vivo application of calipers and to the maximum outside diameter of cannula the vessel will accept.

A method for determination of normal or abnormal blood volume in patients subjected to radionuclide cardiography

The blood volume can be measured after labelling of red blood cells with technetium-99m. In addition, the blood volume and its standard error of estimate can be calculated from the subject's sex, height and deviation from desired weight. By comparing the measured blood volume with the estimated normal blood volume and using a statistical test, it can be decided whether a measured blood volume is normal or not. This method was applied to a group of 36 patients with heart diseases. Four of the patients had abnormal blood volumes. In the remaining 32 patients the measured blood volumes were equally distributed around the estimated mean normal values. The method described for determination of normal/abnormal blood volumes can be considered a by-product of routine radionuclide cardiography.

Work-related fear of AIDS and social-desirability response bias.

The focus of the current research was on development of a short scale to measure work-related fear of AIDS for use in field research and on assessment of the extent to which its ability to predict managers' intentions to discriminate were free of social-desirability response-bias effects. Based upon a sample of 198 managers from southern US manufacturing, service, and government organizations, the study yielded a 5-item scale with particularly strong test-retest reliability of .88 and internal consistency indicated by Cronbach alpha of .92. While initial evidence was promising regarding predictive validity, social desirability was correlated with both fear of AIDS and one of the criterion variables but accounted for very little common variance. Techniques suggested by Ganster, Hennessey, and Luthans (1983) to detect social desirability response bias were employed and did not yield moderator, spurious, or suppression effects. Supplementary analysis showed that respondents in manufacturing exhibit significantly stronger fear of AIDS than either service or government managers. Significant but weak correlations of -.16 and -.20 were found between fear of AIDS and subject's sex and education. Males and the less well educated tend to express greater fear of AIDS. Implications are discussed regarding research and practice in management.

Occupational Prestige as a Function of Occupant's Gender

To examine sex bias in occupational prestige, 250 male and 250 female undergraduate and graduate students in Bombay were asked to rate the respectability of 16 occupations, each with male and female occupants (e.g., a male scientist, a female scientists, etc.). Thus, the study had a 2 (subject's sex) × 2 (occupant's gender) × 16 (occupations) mixed design, with occupant's gender and occupations as within‐subjects factors. All of the main and interaction ANOVA effects were significant. The findings clearly supported the primary hypothesis that both male and female subjects would show a sex bias in favor of the male occupant in cases of high prestige occupations.