Sub-elite Athletes Research Articles

The Effect of Olive Leaf Extract on Upper Respiratory Illness in High School Athletes: A Randomised Control Trial.

Upper respiratory illness (URI) has a major impact on both training and competition in an athletic setting. High school athletes are a sub-category who have reported higher illness rates than professional and sub-elite high school athletes of the same sport. Olive leaf extract (OLE) is an over-the-counter supplement that contains polyphenols, notably oleuropein and hydroxytyrosol, that have antiviral, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties that may reduce URI rates. Thirty-two high school students who play sport for the elite team at their school were recruited to a randomised controlled trial and allocated to a daily placebo or OLE (extent equivalent to 20 g of olive leaf, containing 100 mg oleuropein) supplementation for nine weeks during their competitive season. Twice weekly measures of wellbeing, training load and respiratory illness (sporting upper respiratory illness (SUPPRESS) questionnaire) were recorded at trainings, meetings or games. There was no significant difference in illness incidence (odds ratio (OR): 1.02 (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.21–4.44)), but there was a significant 28% reduction in sick days (OR: 0.72 (95% CI 0.56–0.93) p-value = 0.02) when supplemented with OLE. The dietary intakes of the athletes were sub-optimal with regard to immune support. OLE supplementation over a season did not significantly reduce URI incidence, but did decrease duration in high school athletes, potentially aiding return to play.

Associação dos genótipos da ACTN3 aos indicadores de desempenho em atletas juvenis da natação brasileira especialistas em curtas distâncias

Foi objetivo da pesquisa identificar a frequência genotípica da ACTN3 e associa-la ao índice técnico (IT) e ao status de elite em 98 atletas juvenis de natação (16,80 ± 0,63 anos) especialistas em curtas distâncias (≤ 200m). Um grupo controle (GC) com 101 escolares não-atletas (16,52 ± 0,94 anos) foi incluído nas comparações. Os grupos foram analisados sem divisão por sexo. Os atletas foram divididos pelas experiências competitivas em elite (internacionais, n = 15) e sub-elite (nacionais, n = 83). Não verificou-se diferenças significativas (X2) na frequência genotípica entre atletas sub-elite e GC. Os atletas de elite apresentaram supremacia do genótipo RX (60,0%), baixa frequência do genótipo RR (13,3%), supremacia do alelo X (54,2%) e da adição RX+XX (86,7%). O ajuste das frequências genotípicas pelo quartil superior (QS) do IT revelou que os atletas com genótipos RR+RX apresentaram maior pontuação média (820,6 ± 40,0) quando comparados aos atletas XX (806,7 ± 34,8). Atletas de elite do grupo QS (RR+RX) apresentaram valores médios do IT ainda mais expressivos (853,9 ± 31,3). Os genótipos da ACTN3 demonstraram boa associação aos fenótipos da força/potência apenas entre os atletas identificados nos mais altos níveis de desempenho. 

Effects of hydration status during heat acclimation on plasma volume and performance.

The impact of hydration status was investigated during a 5-day heat acclimation (HA) training protocol vs mild/cool control conditions on plasma volume (PV) and performance (20km time-trial [TT]). Sub-elite athletes were allocated to one of two heat training groups (90min/day): (a) dehydrated to ~2% body weight (BW) loss in heat (35°C; DEH; n=14); (b) euhydrated heat (35°C; EUH; n=10), where training was isothermally clamped to 38.5°C core temperature (Tc ). A euhydrated mild control group (22°C; CON; n=9) was later added, with training clamped to the same relative heart rate (~75% HRmax ) as elicited during DEH and EUH; thus all groups experienced the same internal training stress (%HRmax ). Five-day total thermal load was 30% greater (P<0.001) in DEH and EUH vs CON. There were significant differences in the average percentage of maximal work rate (%Wmax ) across all groups (DEH: 24±6%; EUH: 34±9%; CON: 48±8%Wmax ) during training required to elicit the same %HRmax (77±4% HRmax ). There were no significant differences pre-to post-HA between groups for PV (DEH: +1.7±10.1%; EUH: +4.8±10.2%; CON: +5.2±4.0%), but there was a significant pooled group PV increase, as well as a 97% likely pooled improvement in TT performance (DEH: -1.8±2.8%; EUH: -1.9±2.1%, CON; -1.8±2.8%; P=0.136). Due to a lack of between-group differences for PV and TT, but pooled group increases in PV and 97% likely group increase in TT performance, over 5days of intense training at the same average relative cardiac load suggests that overall training stress may also impact significant adaptations beyond heat and hydration stress.

Expression Of Markers Of Browning In White Adipose Tissue In Life-long Endurance Trained Athletes

Physical exercise and training results in adaptations in adipose tissue. Such adaptations may in part be mediated through “cross-talk” with skeletal muscle. One of these adaptations potentially relevant to energy metabolism in endurance athletes is the beiging of white adipose tissue (WAT). Beiging is the process by which WAT shows characteristics of brown adipose tissue (BAT), possibly increasing basal metabolic rate. While the process of beiging in rodents and the existence of BAT in humans has been shown previously, it is unknown if and how life-long endurance exercise influences beiging of WAT depots. PURPOSE: To study the influence of life-long training on adipose tissue markers of beiging and metabolic performance, the uncoupling protein 1 (UCP-1), CIDEA and PPAR-γ in white adipose tissue (WAT) in sub-elite athletes. METHODS: Periumbilical subcutaneous adipose tissue biopsies were collected from 14 life-long trained sub-elite endurance athletes (8 male, 6 female; VO max performance over 90th percentile for their age group) and 13 age-matched controls (6 male 7 female). Gene expression was analyzed on extracted RNA. Fold induction was statistically analyzed by Student’s-test. RESULTS: UCP-1 gene expression was significantly higher in trained women compared with the control group (p=0.046). No significant difference was found in men when comparing UCP-1 expression (p=0.257). Expression of CIDEA was, again, significantly higher compared with controls (p=0.049), but also in men (p=0.024). Finally, expression of PPAR-γ was significantly higher in trained women (p=0.005). Again no differences were found in men (p=0.924). CONCLUSION: Life-long endurance training results in a higher expression of brown adipose tissue markers in periumbilical WAT in women, in men only in expression of CIDEA, a factory closely associated with metabolic health. Previous results in rodents show a higher susceptibility of females to upregulate BAT markers following β-adrenergic signaling. A similar mechanism might be possible in humans. This effect might also be caused by differences in body fat distribution and functionality, with women having a higher prevalence for BAT.

Trends Supporting the In-Field Use of Wearable Inertial Sensors for Sport Performance Evaluation: A Systematic Review

Recent technological developments have led to the production of inexpensive, non-invasive, miniature magneto-inertial sensors, ideal for obtaining sport performance measures during training or competition. This systematic review evaluates current evidence and the future potential of their use in sport performance evaluation. Articles published in English (April 2017) were searched in Web-of-Science, Scopus, Pubmed, and Sport-Discus databases. A keyword search of titles, abstracts and keywords which included studies using accelerometers, gyroscopes and/or magnetometers to analyse sport motor-tasks performed by athletes (excluding risk of injury, physical activity, and energy expenditure) resulted in 2040 papers. Papers and reference list screening led to the selection of 286 studies and 23 reviews. Information on sport, motor-tasks, participants, device characteristics, sensor position and fixing, experimental setting and performance indicators was extracted. The selected papers dealt with motor capacity assessment (51 papers), technique analysis (163), activity classification (19), and physical demands assessment (61). Focus was placed mainly on elite and sub-elite athletes (59%) performing their sport in-field during training (62%) and competition (7%). Measuring movement outdoors created opportunities in winter sports (8%), water sports (16%), team sports (25%), and other outdoor activities (27%). Indications on the reliability of sensor-based performance indicators are provided, together with critical considerations and future trends.

Australian athletes’ knowledge of the WADA Prohibited Substances List and performance enhancing substances

BackgroundThis study investigated athlete knowledge of the World Anti-doping Agency (WADA) Prohibited Substances List and the effects of four well-known performance enhancing substances (PES). MethodsA sample of 1925 elite and sub-elite athletes (mean age 20.6 years) completed a questionnaire about the banned status of 30 substances/methods and their knowledge of the effects of amphetamines, anabolic steroids, growth hormone and erythropoietin. ResultsAthletes showed limited understanding of the WADA Prohibited Substances List, scoring 32.2% correct, 36.3% incorrect, and 31.4% indicated they did not know the status of 30 substances. Responses of >50% correct were given for only eight substances/method: anabolic steroids, amphetamines, blood doping, erythropoietin, caffeine, vitamins/minerals, protein powders and iron. Athletes demonstrated moderate knowledge of the desired effects of the four PES (49% correct), but poor knowledge of their adverse effects (29% correct). Age, sex, ethnicity, professional/amateur status, and current competition level were significant predictors of the number of correct responses (r2 = 0.16, p < 0.05). Athletes most likely to provide correct responses were male, 19–22 year-olds, Caucasian, professional and international representatives. ConclusionThis comprehensive study of anti-doping demonstrated that Australian athletes had limited knowledge of a wide range of substances and PES. Better targeted drug education towards younger and non-professional athletes and evaluation of current anti-doping programs are warranted.

Physical and anthropometrical attributes of Australian youth soccer players

Objectives To determine whether Australian youth soccer players of varying levels could be distinguished based on their anthropometrical and physical attributes. Design A cross-sectional observational design was used, involving six anthropometrical and physical tests for each player. Methods Participants represented three youth levels of competition, namely national elite (n = 18), state elite (n = 22) and sub-elite (n = 22). Anthropometrical and physical tests included standing height; body mass; 5, 10, 30 m sprint and 20 m ‘flying start’ sprint; zig-zag agility test; vertical jump and Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery test level 1. A multiple analysis of variance for the main effect of cohort, with a follow-up ANOVA and Tukey's Honest Significant Difference were used to discern which attributes differed between each cohort. Receiver operating characteristic curves were calculated, providing cut-off values between cohorts. Results The national elite cohort was significantly taller than the state elite cohort (ES = 0.94) and faster than the sub-elite athletes across 30 m (ES = 0.79) and 20 m with a flying start (ES = 0.77) (P &lt; 0.05). The national elite cohort had a significantly higher level of intermittent endurance, compared to the state elite athletes who also performed better than the sub-elite cohort. The discrepancy between groups in the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery test level 1 was exemplified by the receiver operating characteristic with 94.1% of national elite players running further than 1980 m, while 95.7% of state elite and 100% of sub-elite players failed to reach this distance (ES = 0.88–1.77). Conclusions It is evident that anthropometrical and physical attributes differ between youth cohorts, particularly intermittent endurance. It is important to use this knowledge to enhance the current processes used to identify future talent for success in Australian soccer.

The Determination of the Relationship between Somatotypes and Speed of Sub-Elite Athletes

This study aims to analyze the relationship between somatotypes and speed of 180 male sub-elite athletes aged between 18 and 25. Athletes were divided into two categories as balanced group (balanced somatotype groups) and randomly selected groups (groups outside balanced somatotypes groups) based on their somatotype structures. The arithmetic means and standard deviations of groups are (n=30) 21.95±2.80 years of age, height 168.40±2.62 cm, weight 69.20±5.26 kg in balanced endomorph group, (n=30) 21.60±3.15 years of age, height 170.25±6.39 cm, weight 67.25±6.09 kg in balanced mesomorph group, and (n=30) 20.40±1.46 years of age, height 175.10±5.02 cm, and weight 60.05±5.09 kg in balanced ectomorph group. On the other hand, the same values are (n=30) 21.35±2.30 years of age, height 160.10±2.20 cm, and weight 69.30±5.70 kg in random endomorph group, (n=30) 21.36±2.40 years of age, height 169.24±2.21 cm and weight 65.40±3.25 kg in random mesomorph groups, and (n=30) 20.50±1.85 years of age, height 176.15±3.30 cm and weight 70.10±4.45 kg in random ectomorph group. The measurement data were analyzed using SPSS 2.0 package program for Windows. Somatotype calculations were done in SOMATOTURK Calculation Program. The statistical analysis demonstrated that a highly positive significant correlation (p˂0.001) was found between balanced somatotype groups (balanced endomorph, mesomorph and ectomorph) and randomly selected somatotype groups (random endomorph, mesomorph and ectomorph).

Acetaminophen (Paracetamol): Use beyond Pain Management and Dose Variability.

Inappropriate prescribing of analgesics or self-administration through over the counter formulations results in regular often negative reporting within the media. Indeed, their abuse within elite through to recreational sport is not uncommon (Feucht and Patel, 2010; Warden, 2010; Tscholl and Dvorak, 2012; Brewer et al., 2014). For example, acetaminophen (ACT; commonly known as paracetamol) use is even prevalent in young sub-elite athletes, who consume ACT or other analgesics [e.g., non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)] to decrease pain from previous athletic exertion or prophylactically to reduce pain in subsequent training/competition (Garcin et al., 2005). Related recent headlines include a former FIFA Chief Medical Officer stating that “about half of players competing at the past three World Cups routinely took NSAIDs like ibuprofen” whilst former players report pressure to use such drugs “to get through games” (BBCSport, 2017). NSAIDs and ACT are the most commonly used antipyretic and analgesic drugs worldwide (Hinz and Brune, 2012). Given they are available over the counter, their use even with careful club/team physician oversight can be difficult to police within a professional sport environment. If team clinicians ban over the counter analgesia use, players can and do simply self-administer, increasing risk of drug interaction with clinician prescribed medications and/or over-dose risk (inadvertently or otherwise). ACT has been used globally since 1955 and is considered a safe effective analgesic (Bunchorntavakul and Reddy, 2013). The analgesic properties of ACT are similar to NSAIDs, yet ACT does not share similar NSAID mediated anti-inflammatory actions (Graham et al., 2013). ACT carries fewer, if any, side-effects when used at appropriate dosages compared to NSAIDs (Towheed et al., 2006; Jones et al., 2015). NSAIDs side-effects can include gastrointestinal and arterial wall damage, gastrointestinal ulcers, arterial blood clotting, myocardial infarction, stroke and hemorrhage perforation, amongst others (Ong et al., 2007; Van Wijck et al., 2012). The well evidenced and publicized side-effect of ACT is liver necrosis in cases of acute overdose [e.g., ACT at 250 mg.kg, ~15 g for a 60 kg human (Prescott et al., 1971; Prescott, 1980; Raffa et al., 2014)], evidently not seen under appropriate acute and/or regular use (Skoglund et al., 1991; Dippel et al., 2003a). Although uncommon relative to ACT chronic use, liver necrosis has been reported when concomitant with other factors such as fasting/malnutrition, alcoholism and the use of cytochrome P450 enzyme inducing drugs (Vitols, 2003). Novel research has seen ACT used outside of its typical clinical parameters, including exercise performance domains (Mauger et al., 2010, 2014; Foster et al., 2014) and to induce mild hypothermia within afebrile humans (Foster et al., 2016, 2017). ACT use whilst safe in many scenarios (Ong et al., 2007; Graham et al., 2013) does present risk in others (Hinz and Brune, 2012; Aminoshariae and Khan, 2015), across research and clinical agendas. This opinion piece will detail the variable acute dose and chronic dosages, and their pharmacological safety across established and emerging research fields. In particular, this article will present evidence to support the following opinions: ACT should not be advocated for use within a sporting context, given the present evidence is from tightly controlled laboratory studies which do not replicate the multifaceted physiological, biochemical, and environmental perturbations to homeostasis during sporting performance. ACT may provide a useful tool in determining fundamental biochemical thermoregulatory mechanisms in vivo in humans, when appropriate experimental controls and designs are employed.

Isometric Exercise to Reduce Pain in Patellar Tendinopathy In-Season: Is It Effective "on the Road"?

To investigate the effectiveness of an isometric squat exercise using a portable belt, on patellar tendon pain and function, in athletes during their competitive season. Case series with no requirements to change any aspect of games or training. The object of this pragmatic study was to investigate this intervention in addition to "usual management." A control or sham intervention was considered unacceptable to teams. In-season. A total of 25 male and female elite and subelite athletes from 5 sports. 5 × 30-second isometric quadriceps squat exercise using a rigid belt completed over a 4-week period. (1) single-leg decline squat (SLDS)-a pain provocation test for the patellar tendon (numerical rating score of pain between 0 and 10), (2) VISA-P questionnaire assessing patellar tendon pain and function, and (3) self-reported adherence with completing the exercise over a 4-week period. Baseline SLDS pain was high for these in-season athletes, median 7.5/10 (range 3.5-9) and was significantly reduced over the 4-week intervention (P < 0.001, ES r = 0.580, median change 3.5). VISA-P scores improved after intervention (P < 0.001, ES r = 0.568, mean change 12.2 ± 8.9, percentage mean change 18.8%, where minimum clinical important difference of relative change for VISA-P is 15.4%-27%). Adherence was high; athletes reported completing the exercise 5 times per week. This pragmatic study suggests that a portable isometric squat reduced pain in-season for athletes with patellar tendinopathy (PT). This form of treatment may be effective, but clinical trials with a control group are needed to confirm the results.

Specific Physical Training in Elite Male Team Handball.

Wagner, H, Gierlinger, M, Adzamija, N, Ajayi, S, Bacharach, DW, and von Duvillard, SP. Specific physical training in elite male team handball. J Strength Cond Res 31(11): 3083-3093, 2017-Specific physical training in elite team handball is essential for optimal player's performance; however, scientific knowledge is generally based on temporary training studies with subelite athletes. Therefore, the aim of the study was to analyze the effects of specific physical training in an elite male handball team over the entire season. Twelve players of a male handball team from the First Austrian Handball League conducted a 1-year specific physical training program in addition to their normal (team handball techniques and tactics) weekly training. Performance was measured with 5 general and 4 specific tests as well as game statistics during competition. Repeated measures analysis of variances and paired sample t-test were used to analyze differences in performance during training. We found a significant increase in oxygen uptake, offense time, defense time, fast break time, and jump height in the specific tests. Game performance statistics revealed a lower throwing percentage in the hosting team (59%) compared with the rival teams (63%). Our results indicated that specific endurance and agility are an acceptable modality in elite male team handball. However, performance in competition is strongly influenced by specific techniques and tactics. We recommend to strength and conditioning professionals that they tailor strength and power training, coordination and endurance as specific as possible, using free weights, agility exercises that include change in direction and jumps as well as short (10-15 seconds) high-intensity intervals.

A Brief Review of Handgrip Strength and Sport Performance.

Cronin, J, Lawton, T, Harris, N, Kilding, A, and McMaster, DT. A brief review of handgrip strength and sport performance. J Strength Cond Res 31(11): 3187-3217, 2017-Tests of handgrip strength (HGS) and handgrip force (HGF) are commonly used across a number of sporting populations. Measures of HGS and HGF have also been used by practitioners and researchers to evaluate links with sports performance. This article first evaluates the validity and reliability of various handgrip dynamometers (HGD) and HGF sensors, providing recommendations for procedures to ensure that precise and reliable data are collected as part of an athlete's testing battery. Second, the differences in HGS between elite and subelite athletes and the relationships between HGS, HGF, and sports performance are discussed.

Validity of the 30-15 Intermittent Fitness Test in Subelite Female Athletes.

Bruce, LM and Moule, SJ. Validity of the 30-15 intermittent fitness test in subelite female athletes. J Strength Cond Res 31(11): 3077-3082, 2017-The purpose of this study was to assess the suitability of the 30-15 Intermittent Fitness Test (IFT) as a test in netball using female athletes. Twenty-six female subelite netballers (mean age = 19.7 ± 4.6 years, mean height = 176.0 ± 6.1 cm, mean body mass = 69.7 ± 9.3 kg) completed the yo-yo intermittent recovery test level 1 (yo-yo IRT1) and the 30-15 IFT. Participants performed both assessments 1 week apart before the intervention and both tests 1 week apart after the training intervention (for a total of 4 testing sessions). A 6-week training intervention occurred between the test occasions. Pearson's correlations revealed significant very strong relationships between the 30-15 IFT and yo-yo IRT on both test occasions (test occasion 1: r = 0.71, p = 0.003 [95% confidence interval {CI} 0.35-0.89], magnitude of effect, most likely; test occasion 2: r = 0.72, p = 0.001 [95% CI: 0.42-0.88], magnitude of effect, most likely). Repeated-measures analysis of variances examining the effect of position on performance changes revealed main effects for test occasion and a position × test occasion interaction for both the 30-15 IFT and the yo-yo IRT1 (30-15 IFT: test occasion [F(1,14) = 28.68, p = 0.001, ηp = 0.67], position × test occasion interaction [F(2,14) = 9.38, p = 0.003, ηp = 0.57]; yo-yo IRT1: test occasion [F(1,15) = 11.72, p = 0.004, ηp = 0.44], position × test occasion interaction [F(2,15) = 9.96, p = 0.002, ηp = 0.57]). Results show that the 30-15 IFT is a suitable test for female netballers as it was able to detect improvements in performance after a training intervention, in addition to having a very strong significant relationship with the yo-yo IRT1.

Diagnosis of acute groin injuries in athletes

I investigated injury situations and methods for clinical and imaging examinations in the diagnosis of acute groin injuries in athletes. Acute groin injuries are common in team sports, yet research...

Is There an Optimal Pole Length for Double Poling in Cross Country Skiing?

The aim of this study was to determine the effects of pole length on energy cost and kinematics in cross country double poling. Seven sub-elite male athletes were tested using pole sets of different lengths (ranging between 77% and 98% of participants' body height). Tests were conducted on a treadmill, set to a 2% incline and an approximate racing speed. Poling forces, contact times, and oxygen uptake were measured throughout the testing. Pole length was positively correlated with ground contact time (r = .57, p < .001) and negatively correlated with poling frequency (r = -.48, p = .003). Pole length was also positively correlated with pole recovery time and propulsive impulse produced per poling cycle (r = .36, p = .031; r = .35, p = .042, respectively). Oxygen uptake and pole length were negatively correlated (r = -.51, p = .004). This acute study shows that increasing pole length for double poling in sub-elite cross country skiers under the given conditions seems to change the poling mechanics in distinct ways, resulting in a more efficient poling action by decreasing an athlete's metabolic cost.

Micronutrient Intakes in 553 Dutch Elite and Sub-Elite Athletes: Prevalence of Low and High Intakes in Users and Non-Users of Nutritional Supplements.

This study investigated whether athletes meet micronutrient recommendations and whether the adequacy of their intake is related to the use of dietary supplements, sport nutrition products or a combination. Micronutrient intakes of 553 Dutch (sub-) elite athletes were assessed using web-based 24-h dietary recalls with accompanying nutritional supplement questionnaires. In the majority of both users and non-users of dietary supplements, vitamin D intake was below the estimated average requirement (AR) if supplements were not included in the analysis. Including dietary supplements improved vitamin D intake, but still a part of the athletes, both men and women, reported an intake below the AR. Non-users of dietary supplements were particularly at risk for low intakes of vitamins B1, B2, B3 and vitamins A, C and selenium. Mean iron intake was reported below the AR in a substantial group of women, both users and non-users. The use of sport nutrition products contributed only slightly to micronutrient intake. A small prevalence of athletes using dietary supplements showed intakes of some micronutrients above the Upper Level. In conclusion, both users and non-users of nutritional supplements reported inadequate intake of micronutrients. For most micronutrients, use of nutritional supplements does not completely compensate for intakes below AR. Athletes should consider making better food choices and the daily use of a low-dosed multivitamin supplement.

Gunslingers, poker players, and chickens 2: Decision-making under physical performance pressure in subelite athletes.

Having investigated the influence of acute physical exhaustion on decision-making in world-class elite athletes in Parkin et al. (2017), here a similar method is applied to subelite athletes. These subelite athletes were enrolled on a Team GB talent development program and were undergoing training for possible Olympic competition in 4-8 years. They differ from elite athletes examined previously according to expertise and age. While considered elite (Swann et al., 2015), the subelite athletes had approximately 8 years fewer sporting experience and were yet to obtain sustained success on the international stage. Additionally, the average age of the subelite sample is 20 years; thus, they are still undergoing the behavioral, cognitive, and neuronal changes that occur during the transition from late adolescence to young adulthood (Blakemore and Robbins, 2012). Previous work has used broad definitions of elite status in sport, and as such overlooked different categories within the spectrum of elite athletes (Swann et al., 2015). Therefore it is important to consider subelite athletes as a discrete point on the developmental trajectory of elite sporting expertise. This work aims to investigate the influence of physical pressure on key indicators of decision-making in subelite athletes. It forms part of a wider project examining decision-making across different stages of the developmental trajectory in elite sport. In doing so, it aims to examine how to apply and develop psychological insights useful to an elite sporting environment. 32 subelite athletes (18 males, mean age: 20 years) participated in the study. Performance across three categories of decision-making was assessed under conditions of low and high physical pressure. Decision-making under risk was measured with performance of the Cambridge Gambling Task (CGT; Rogers et al., 1999), decision-making under uncertainty with the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART; Lejuez et al., 2002), and fast reactive responses and inhibition via the Stop Signal Reaction Time Task (SSRT; Logan, 1994). Physical exhaustion was induced via intervals of maximal exertion exercise on a wattbike. Under pressure subelite athletes showed increased risk taking for both decisions where probability outcomes were explicit (on the CGT), and those where probability outcomes were unknown (on the BART). Despite making quicker decisions under pressure, with fewer errors, on the CGT, subelite athletes showed a reduced ability to optimally adjust betting behavior according to reward and loss contingencies. Fast reactive responses to perceptual stimuli and response inhibition did not change as a result of physical pressure. Individual responses to pressure showed a negative correlation in that a decrease in reaction times on the SSRT Task under pressure was associated with an increase in risk taking on the BART. When assessing the applicability of results based on group averages to individual athletes, 17% of the sample showed an "average" response (within 1 SD of the mean) to pressure across all three decision-making tasks. Indicators of decision-making in a sample of subelite athletes are influenced by physical pressure, with a shift toward increased indiscriminate risk taking. The influence that physical pressure has on decision-making was different to that observed in world-class elite athletes; this highlights the importance of distinguishing between athletes at the elite level (Swann et al., 2015). The application of this work to a novel subgroup of elite athletes, including the implementation of a decision-making taxonomy, is discussed.

Gunslingers, poker players, and chickens 3: Decision making under mental performance pressure in junior elite athletes.

Having investigated the decision making of world class elite and subelite athletes (see Parkin and Walsh, 2017; Parkin et al., 2017), here the abilities of those at the earliest stage of entry to elite sport are examined. Junior elite athletes have undergone initial national selection and are younger than athletes examined previously (mean age 13 years). Decision making under mental pressure is explored in this sample. During performance an athlete encounters a wide array of mental pressures; these include the psychological impact of errors, negative feedback, and requirements for sustained attention in a dynamic environment (Anshel and Wells, 2000; Mellalieu et al., 2009). Such factors increase the cognitive demands of the athletes, inducing distracting anxiety-related thoughts known as rumination (Beilock and Gray, 2007). Mental pressure has been shown to reduce performance of decision-making tasks where reward and loss contingencies are explicit, with a shift toward increased risk taking (Pabst et al., 2013; Starcke et al., 2011). Mental pressure has been shown to be detrimental to decision-making speed in comparison to physical stress, highlighting the importance of considering a range of different pressures encountered by athletes (Hepler, 2015). To investigate the influence of mental pressure on key indicators of decision making in junior elite athletes. This chapter concludes a wider project examining decision making across developmental stages in elite sport. The work further explores how psychological insights can be applied in an elite sporting environment and in particular tailored to the requirements of junior athletes. Seventeen junior elite athletes (10 males, mean age: 13.80 years) enrolled on a national youth athletic development program participated in the study. Performance across three categories of decision making was assessed under conditions of low and high mental pressure. Decision making under risk was measured via the Cambridge Gambling Task (CGT; Rogers et al., 1999), decision making under uncertainty via the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART; Lejuez et al., 2002), and fast reactive responses to perceptual stimuli via the Visual Search Task (Treisman, 1982). Mental pressure was induced with the addition of a concurrent verbal memory task, used to increase cognitive load and mimic the distracting effects of anxiety-related rumination. In junior elite athletes, fast reactive responses to perceptual stimuli (on the Visual Search Task) were slower under conditions of mental pressure. For decision making under risk there was an interaction of mental pressure and gender on the amount of points gambled, under pressure there was a higher level of risk taking in male athletes compared to females. There was no influence of mental pressure on decision making under uncertainity. There were no significant correlations in the degree to which individual's responses changed under pressure across the three measures of decision making. When assessing the applicability of results based on group averages there were no junior elite athletes who showed an "average" response (within 1SD of the mean) to mental pressure across all the three decision-making tasks. Mental pressure affects decision making in a sample of junior elite athletes, with a slowing of response times, and modulations to performance of decision making under risk that have a high requirement for working memory. In relation to sport, these findings suggest that novel situations that place high cognitive demands on the athlete may be particularly influenced by mental pressure. The application of this work in junior elite athletes included the feedback of individual results and the implementation of a decision-making taxonomy.

Irisin: A Potential Link between Physical Exercise and Metabolism-An Observational Study in Differently Trained Subjects, from Elite Athletes to Sedentary People.

We compared irisin levels among groups of differently trained healthy individuals to explore the role of irisin as a physiological linker between exercise and metabolic health. Irisin and biochemical parameters of glucose and lipid metabolism were assessed in 70 healthy volunteers stratified for sport performance level into four groups: (1) 20 elite athletes of national level, (2) 20 subelite athletes of local level, (3) 20 recreational athletes, and (4) 10 sedentary subjects. All biochemical parameters were within the ranges of normality. Fasting glucose, HOMA-IR, and total cholesterol levels were inversely related to the degree of physical activity. HbA1c was higher in elite athletes compared to all the other groups (p < 0.01). A U-shaped relation between free fatty acids and the degree of physical activity was observed. All groups showed similar plasma irisin levels. After correction for the degree of insulin resistance (irisin/HOMA-IR), elite athletes showed higher levels compared to sedentary and recreational subjects (p < 0.01 and p < 0.05, resp.). In addition, the number of metabolic parameters correlated with irisin increased at increasing the training status. Our study suggests a correlation between sport performance, insulin sensitivity, and irisin levels. Irisin may be one potential mediator of the beneficial effects of exercise on metabolic profile.

The acute effect of maximal voluntary isometric contraction pull on start gate performance of snowboard and ski cross athletes

This study investigated whether adding a maximal voluntary isometric contraction to developing snowboard and ski cross athletes’ warm-up could reduce start time. A secondary aim was to assess the appropriateness of start performance as a talent identification tool for junior athletes by determining whether differences in time could be explained by participant age and anthropometry. Twenty sub-elite athletes (male: n = 11, female: n = 9, age: 15.0 ± 1.4 years) participated. No differences were found for start time (7.5 m) between maximal voluntary isometric contraction and standardised (no-maximal voluntary isometric contraction) warm-up or gender (maximal voluntary isometric contraction; males: 1.36 ± 0.07 s, females: 1.41 ± 0.03 s, no-maximal voluntary isometric contraction; males: 1.35 ± 0.01 s, females: 1.38 ± 0.10 s, P &gt; 0.05). A strong relationship between body mass and start time to 7.5 m ( r = −0.78, r2 = 0.61, P &lt; 0.05) was observed. Use of maximal voluntary isometric contraction-based warm-ups with developing snowboard cross and ski cross athletes may not be beneficial to improving performance.