Sub-elite Athletes Research Articles

Estimating endogenous glucose production during exercise using heart rate: implications for diabetes management

Abstract Non-invasive, continuous Endogenous glucose production (EGP) estimation during exercise would help manage and automate insulin and glucose dosing during exercise, providing novel information to more effectively close the loop in managing glucose levels. This study used a combination of new study and literature data to determine relationships between blood lactate concentrations, heart rate (HR), and EGP. From these relationships, EGP can be estimated based on HR, which is continuously and non-invasively available at low cost in exercise. Participants for the exercise protocol were 10 sub-elite athletes who participated in at least 6 hours per week of endurance sports. Lactate as a function of HR during high intensity (HI) exercise has variability R2 = 0.49. The variability in the model curve using independent literature values is R2 = 0.65. Using these results to create a model of EGP as a function of HR gives an R2 = 0.80. This method provides a continuous and non-invasive means of estimating EGP during exercise, including at HI, which is more rarely studied, and can be used to improve diabetes management in exercise.

Does the Spraino low-friction shoe patch prevent lateral ankle sprain injury in indoor sports? A pilot randomised controlled trial with 510 participants with previous ankle injuries

BackgroundLateral ankle sprains are common in indoor sports. High shoe–surface friction is considered a risk factor for non-contact lateral ankle sprains. Spraino is a novel low-friction patch that can be...

Pacing and stroke kinematics in 200-m kayak racing

ABSTRACT Pacing profiles of 19 elite and sub-elite 200-m kayak athletes were examined through stroke-by-stroke analysis, using GPS/accelerometer methodology. Stroke rates and lengths were also quantified across multiple race segments. Whilst athletes reached peak velocity at between 40 and 60 m, it was not possible to determine specifically whether an all-out or positive strategy was employed. Race times were strongly and negatively correlated with the acceleration over the first ~25% of race distance (r = −0.95 ± 0.04) as well as average velocity over the first 30 m of the race (r>-0.9), i.e. faster starts were associated with faster finishing times. Furthermore, the maintenance of velocity, stroke rate and stroke length after reaching their maxima were strongly associated with race times. Stroke rates were higher (Cohen’s d = 5.19) in the elite than sub-elite athletes (group categorisation based on race times), but there were no substantial differences in stroke rates between athletes within the elite cohort. Nonetheless, longer stroke lengths were associated with faster race times within the elite cohort (r = −0.48 to −0.85). The current study suggests that faster rates of acceleration and the ability to exhibit greater stroke lengths at relatively high stroke rates are determinants of 200-m kayak race performance.

Competition warm-up strategies in sub-elite and elite flat-water sprint kayak athletes

ABSTRACT This study compared warm-up strategies employed by sub-elite and world-class elite sprint kayak athletes, evaluating their impact on subsequent race performance. Forty-seven (n = 33 male, n = 14 female) athletes competing at a National Sprint Kayak Championships had Global Navigation Satellite System devices fitted to their kayak to measure speed, distance and stroke rate during the on-water warm-up before racing (OWWU), and during racing. The OWWU total duration, average/peak speeds and stroke rates, and the time spent in speed-zones classified based upon athletes’ relative race-pace (low-to-moderate, moderate-to-high, and race-specific) were compared between events, sexes, and athlete standard. The relationship of these variables to subsequent race performance, expressed as a percentage of the best time-to-completion for each event (%racebest), was also examined. Women spent greater OWWU time at moderate-to-high and race-specific speeds compared to men prior to 200-m and 500-m races (P ≤.001). Sub-elite men reported greater total OWWU duration for 200-m and 500-m (P ≤.025), but not for 1000-m races (P >.05) compared to elite men. Finally, %racebest had large inverse correlations to OWWU peak speed for men’s 200-m (r = −.53), and average stroke rate for women’s 500-m races (r = −.50). This study provides valuable insight for competition warm-up routines based upon data from an elite athlete population.

The influence of playing position on the physical, technical, and network variables of sub-elite professional soccer athletes

PurposeMatch analysis must adopt multidimensional performance indicators, which include analysing playing position influence in official matches. The study compared physical, technical, and network variables of Brazilian soccer athletes from different positions.MethodsOverall, 17 professional soccer athletes (3 central defenders, 4 fullbacks, 5 central midfielders, 3 wide forwards, 2 central forwards) were monitored during 6 official matches. External load data were collected with a 10-Hz GPS device. The number of passes, shots, losses of ball possession, and balls recovered were coded. Athletes’ network centralities were assessed with social network analysis.ResultsCentral midfielders (10.0 ± 0.8 km) and wide forwards (10.4 ± 0.4 km) covered higher distances than central defenders (10.2% and 14.7%, respectively; <i>ES</i> = 0.392) and central forwards (16.7% and 21.5%, respectively; <i>ES</i> = 0.392). Wide forwards performed more high-intensity running (17.8 ± 2.5) than central defenders (91.4%; <i>ES</i> = 0.377) and forwards (88.9%; <i>ES</i> = 0.377). Central defenders (43.1 ± 22.3) and fullbacks (41.5 ± 17.3) performed more passes than forwards (453.4% and 470.0%, respectively; <i>ES</i> = 0.383). Central defenders (0.16 ± 0.04 AU) and fullbacks (0.14 ± 0.05 AU) presented a higher degree of centrality than all other positions (<i>ES</i> = 0.651). Wide forwards presented a higher degree of prestige (0.13 ± 0.05 AU) than central defenders (325%; <i>ES</i> = 0.242). The highest prominence was observed for wide (0.12 ± 0.01 AU) and central forwards (0.12 ± 0.03 AU) (<i>ES</i> = 0.509).ConclusionsPhysical and technical responses and network properties are position-specific among sub-elite athletes.

An investigation of the effects of self-reported self-control strength on shooting performance

During professional shooting tournaments, which typically last multiple hours, athletes must stay focused at all times in order to perform at their highest levels. Sustaining attention over extended periods of time relies on self-control. Crucially, perceived state self-control strength appears to wane as a function of task duration, which ultimately can impair shooting performance. In the present study, we tested the assumption that the level of self-reported self-control strength decreases over the course of a 1-h shooting task measured twice during a regular training day and separated by a 2-h break. Additionally, we assumed that shooting performance would be linked with fluctuations in self-control. A total of 21 shooters (14 elite and 7 sub-elite) took part in this study and were asked to perform a series of 10 shots at a standardized target, five times in the morning and five times in the afternoon (i.e., 100 shots total). The participants also reported their perceived state self-control strength at the baseline (prior to the start of the morning session as well as the afternoon session) and after a series of 10 shots each in the morning and afternoon (i.e., 12 measurements in total). In line with our hypotheses, we observed that perceived state self-control diminished with the number of shots performed, and that perceived state self-control could explain shooting performance. Additionally, these observations could explain the difference in shooting performance between elite and sub-elite athletes. The results suggest that the perception of self-control strength is highly important for optimal shooting performance. Practical implications are discussed.

A Comparison of On-Ice External Load Measures Between Subelite and Elite Female Ice Hockey Players.

Douglas, AS, Rotondi, MA, Baker, J, Jamnik, VK, and Macpherson, AK. A comparison of on-ice external load measures between subelite and elite female ice hockey players. J Strength Cond Res 36(7): 1978-1983, 2022-This study quantified and examined differences in measures of on-ice external load for subelite and elite female ice hockey players. External load variables were collected from subelite (N = 21) and elite (N = 24) athletes using Catapult S5 monitors during the preseason. A total of 574 data files were analyzed from training and competition during the training camp. Significant differences between groups were found across all variables. Differences in training between the 2 groups ranged from trivial (forwards PlayerLoad, p = 0.03, effect-size [ES] = 0.18) to large (forwards Explosive Efforts [EEs], p < 0.001, ES = 1.64; defense EEs, p < 0.001, ES = 1.40). Match comparisons yielded similar results, with differences ranging from small (defense Low Skating Load [SL], p = 0.05, ES = 0.49; Medium SL, p = 0.04, ES = 0.52) to very large (forwards PlayerLoad, p < 0.001. ES = 2.25; PlayerLoad·min-1, p < 0.001, ES = 2.66; EEs, p < 0.001, ES = 2.03; Medium SL, p < 0.001, ES = 2.31; SL·min-1, p < 0.001, ES = 2.67), respectively. The differences in external load measures of intensity demonstrate the need to alter training programs of subelite ice athletes to ensure they can meet the demands of elite ice hockey. As athletes advance along the development pathway, considerable focus of their off-ice training should be to improve qualities that enhance their ability to perform high-intensity on-ice movements.

Interaction Between ACTN3 (R577X), ACE (I/D), and BDKRB2 (-9/+9) Polymorphisms and Endurance Phenotypes in Brazilian Long-Distance Swimmers.

Neto, SLdA, Herrera, JJB, Rosa, TS, de Almeida, SS, Silva, GCB, Ferreira, CES, dos Santos, MAP, Silvino, VO, de Melo, GF. Interaction between ACTN3 (R577X), ACE (I/D), and BDKRB2 (-9/+9) polymorphisms and endurance phenotypes in Brazilian long-distance swimmers. J Strength Cond Res 36(6): 1591-1595, 2022-This study investigated the interactions between the polymorphisms ACTN3 (R577X), ACE (I/D), and BDKRB2 (-9/+9) and their association with endurance phenotypes in Brazilian long-distance swimmers. Twenty-six volunteers (aged 18-30 years) were divided into 2 groups as follows: 19 subelite athletes formed the pool swimming experts (PSE: 400-1500 m) group and 7 elite athletes the open water swimming experts (OWSE: 5-25 km) group. ACTN3 (R577X), ACE (I/D), and BDKRB2 (-9/+9) polymorphisms were genotyped through polymerase chain reaction. A nonathletes control (CON) group derived from studies with the Brazilian population was created. Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (X2) was observed in all groups. The total genotype score (TGS) associated with endurance phenotypes was used in this study. A significance level was established at p ≤ 0.05. PSE and CON groups had very similar genotyping distribution. The OWSE group had a greater frequency for the genotypes XX (57.1%), ID (57.1%), and the alleles X (71.4%) and I (57.2%) than CON and PSE groups (XX = 21.1 and 21.1%; ID = 47.1 and 52.6% [p > 0.05]; X = 44.0 and 42.1%; I = 45.3 and 42.1%, respectively). Considering BDKRB2, OWSE and PSE groups had a greater frequency of +9/+9 than the CON group (42.9% and 31.6 vs. 27.5%, respectively). Although the expected genotypic distribution was not verified among athletes, the TGS revealed small supremacy of 3-5 typical alleles in the OWSE group (54.8 ± 26.7%) compared with the PSE group (41.2 ± 17.8%) (p = 0.072; confidence interval = 95%; effect size = 0.95). The OWSE group seem to have benefited from the best genotype profile verified for ACTN3 and ACE. However, the results of this work should be approached with caution because of the small number of athletes and polymorphisms assessed.

Kinematic comparison of support and swing techniques between elite and sub-elite athletes during the 30-m acceleration of sprint running

ABSTRACT The support and swing techniques of accelerative sprint were compared at different acceleration phases between different athlete groups using high-speed photography. Performance distinction between elite and sub-elite athletes (n = 16) was measured at steps 3, 4, 8, and 9 during a 30-m sprint run. The integral kinematic parameters of hip and knee joints were then compared between the groups. The results indicated that, in elite athletes, integral kinematic parameters such as larger step length, lower step frequency, shorter support time, and longer support distance resulted in larger horizontal velocity of the centre of gravity during the acceleration phase. However, as distance increased, this horizontal velocity increased with step length, support distance, and support time. For various kinematic parameters, the superior performance of elite athletes was mainly based on larger hip angle range and smaller knee angle of touch down. Hip angle of touchdown and toe-off of the supporting leg were important for sub-elite athletes, but training knee angle of touchdown was more suitable for improving performance in elite athletes. The present study provided theoretical reference for beginners and coaches of accelerative running technique.

Body composition differences by age and playing standard in male rugby union and rugby league: A systematic review and meta-analysis

ABSTRACT This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to determine differences in body compositionn between playing standard and age in male rugby union and rugby league athletes. The MOOSE (Meta-analysis of Observational Studies in Epidemiology) guidelines for design, implementation, and reporting were followed. Studies were required to be in male rugby union or league and have body composition as the primary or secondary outcome. Data was required to be presented separately for positional groups and body composition presented as whole-body. A systematic search was performed in PubMed, Cochrane Library, MEDLINE, SPORTDiscus, and CINHAHL via EBSCOhost. 57 studies were included for meta-analysis. Results highlighted significantly higher fat-free mass in senior elite than senior sub-elite or junior elite athletes for all RU and RL forwards. Small and non-significant differences were found in fat mass between rugby union playing standards and age categories. Rugby league senior elite forwards had less fat mass than junior elite forwards. Practitioners should prioritise training and nutritional strategies that maximise fat-free mass development, especially in junior elite cohorts.

Napping in high-performance athletes: Sleepiness or sleepability?

Daytime napping is a common practice in high-performance athletes, and is widely assumed to reflect sleepiness arising from sports-related sleep debt. The possibility that athlete naps may also be indicative of ‘sleepability’, a capacity to nap on demand that is only weakly related to homeostatic sleep pressure, has not previously been tested. The present study compared daytime sleep latencies in high-performance athletes and non-athlete controls using a single nap opportunity model. Elite (n = 10), and sub-elite (n = 10) athletes, and non-athlete controls (n = 10) attended the laboratory for a first adaption trial, and a subsequent experimental trial. Subjective sleepiness was assessed using the Karolinska Sleepiness Scale (KSS) at 14:00, 14:30 and immediately prior to a 20-minute nap opportunity at 15:00. Sleep latencies were measured using polysomnography, and defined as the time from lights out to the first epoch of any stage of sleep (N1, N2, N3, REM). In unadjusted comparisons with non-athlete controls, elite athletes showed significantly shorter sleep latencies in both the adaptation (p < 0.05) and experimental trials (p < 0.05). These significant differences were maintained in models controlling for pre-trial KSS scores and pre-trial total sleep time (all p < 0.05). Sleep latency scores for sub-elite athletes showed similar trends, but were more labile. These results are consistent with a conclusion that, among elite athletes, napping behaviour can reflect sleepability and may not necessarily result from nocturnal sleep disruption and daytime sleepiness.

The study of the correlations between handgrip strength and some anthropometric characteristics of upper extremity of elite and sub-elite Olympic style weightlifting athletes

Background and Study Aim: Handgrip strength is widely used as a functionality parameter of the upper extremity and general health. The measurement of handgrip strength by dynamometry is a low cost, noninvasive method of simple applicability. The study aims to find out handgrip strength and its correlation with some anthropometric characteristics of the upper extremity and weightlifting performance of elite (international medalists) and sub-elite (national medalists) Olympic style weightlifting athletes. Material and Methods: We obtained anthropometric measurements of upper extremity of elite athletes (n=25 male, n= 20 female) and sub-elite athletes (n=25 male, n=29 female) in the study. Dominant and non-dominant handgrip strength measurements of the groups were obtained by a Jamar dynamometer, according to the recommendations of the American Association of Hand Therapists. Results:No statistically significant difference was observed in non-dominant handgrip strength of male elite and sub-elite weightlifting athletes. Similarly, no significant difference was observed in between some anthropometric characteristics of upper extremity and dominant and non-dominant handgrip strength of female elite and sub-elite weightlifting athletes. We didn’t find any asymmetry between dominant and non-dominant handgrip strength of study groups. We found a significant correlation between dominant and non-dominant handgrip strength of male and female elite athletes and their height, body weight, BMI and weightlifting performance. Conclusions: Consequently, we might explain that adding special exercises into the general trainings of athletes to develop handgrip strength might contribute to the weightlifting performance of the athletes.

Taekwondo Anaerobic Intermittent Kick Test: Discriminant Validity and an Update with the Gold-Standard Wingate Test.

The aim of this study was to update the validity of the Taekwondo Anaerobic Intermittent Kick Test compared with the 30-s Wingate anaerobic test as the "Gold-Standard", squat jump and countermovement jump tests. The second objective was to examine whether this new specific test would be able to effectively discriminate between elite taekwondo athletes of different competitive levels. Twenty taekwondo athletes (15 males and 5 females) participated in the validation component, whereas 18 (14 males and 4 females) and 16 (13 males and 3 females) athletes participated in the reliability analysis of the Wingate anaerobic test and jumping tests, respectively. They performed these tests on two separate occasions (i.e., test-retest), in addition to the Taekwondo Anaerobic Intermittent Kick Test. To establish test’s discriminatory capability (i.e., construct validity), two subgroups were identified based on their international and national taekwondo performance: 10 elite (8 males and 2 females) and 9 sub-elite (7 males and 2 females) athletes. Wingate anaerobic test and jumping tests performances showed excellent reliability (ICC > 0.90, SEM < 5% for most variables). Significant correlations between Taekwondo Anaerobic Intermittent Kick Test, Wingate anaerobic test, and jumping tests’ variables were mostly "large". Elite taekwondo athletes showed greater taekwondo test performances compared with their sub-elite counterparts (p < 0.001). Receiving operating characteristic analysis indicated that the taekwondo specific test was able to effectively discriminate between elite and sub-elite taekwondo athletes. Overall, the findings of the current study support the concurrent validity of the Taekwondo Anaerobic Intermittent Kick Test. In particular, the Taekwondo Anaerobic Intermittent Kick Test showed good ability to effectively discriminate between taekwondo athletes of different competitive levels.

Anthropometric and Physical Fitness Profiles of World-Class Male Padel Players.

The aims of this study were to describe and compare the anthropometric and physical fitness attributes of male padel players according to their competitive level, and to establish a functional anthropometric and physical profile. A total of 60 males participated in the present study. Athletes were grouped according to competition level, forming an elite group (n = 25) and a subelite group (n = 35). Anthropometric variables, hand grip and lumbar isometric strength, flexibility, and lower-body muscular strength were measured. Elite padel players were significantly older and showed significantly lower values for the thigh and calf skinfolds, the sum of six and eight skinfolds, and the sum of lower-limb skinfolds than the subelite group. Elite padel players also had significantly lower values than subelite players for body fat percentage and thigh fat area, whilst showing significantly higher values for lumbar isometric strength. Somatotype of the elite padel players could be defined as endo-mesomorphic. Results suggest that training and talent identification of padel players should focus on their anthropometric characteristics and physical fitness, with these being different between elite and subelite athletes. Normative data could help coaches throughout the talent identification process and in the design of training programs when seeking to optimise sports performance.

Athletes Play Through Pain-What Does That Mean for Rehabilitation Specialists?

Pain in sport has been normalized to the point where athletes are expected to ignore pain and remain in the game despite the possible detrimental consequences associated with playing through pain. While rehabilitation specialists may not have an influence on an athlete's competitive nature or the culture of risk they operate in, understanding the consequences of those factors on an athlete's physical well-being is definitely in their area of responsibility. To explore the factors associated with the experiences of subelite athletes who play through pain in gymnastics, rowing, and speed skating. The authors conducted semistructured interviews with subelite athletes, coaches, and rehabilitation specialists. They recruited coach participants through their provincial sport organization. Athletes of the recruited coaches who were recovering from a musculoskeletal injury and training for a major competition were then recruited. They also recruited rehabilitation specialists who were known to treat subelite athletes independently by e-mail. An observation session was conducted at the athlete's training facility. Interviews were then conducted either in a room at the university or at a preferred sound-attenuated location suggested by the participant. The authors studied 5 coaches, 4 subelite athletes, and 3 rehabilitation specialists. The authors photographed athletes during a practice shortly before an important competition, and we interviewed all the participants after that competition. Our photographs were used during the interview to stimulate discussion. The participant interviews revealed 3 main themes related to playing through pain. They are: Listening to your body, Decision making, and Who decides. When subelite athletes, striving to be the best in their sport continue to train with the pain of an injury, performance is affected in the short-term and long-term consequences are also possible. Our study provides some insight into the contrasting forces that athletes balance as they decide to continue or to stop.

Differences in Strength Performance Between Novice and Elite Athletes: Evidence From Powerlifters.

Latella, C, van den Hoek, D, and Teo, WP. Differences in strength performance between novice and elite athletes: Evidence from powerlifters. J Strength Cond Res 33(7S): S103-S112, 2019-Strength forms an integral part of many sports. In particular, powerlifting success is determined solely by maximal strength, providing a unique opportunity to investigate the differences and potential factors influencing novice and elite competitors. We evaluated performance from 2,137 competitors between local (LOC), national (NAT), and international (INT) competitions. Results were analyzed by using the total (TOT) competition score within weight classes and age categories. Cohen's d effect sizes and 95% confidence intervals were used to detect differences within categories between LOC, NAT, and INT competitions. The coefficient of variation (CV) was used to determine the absolute variability. A moderate to large increase in performance was observed for all weight classes between LOC and NAT (men; d = 0.76, women; d = 1.09). No meaningful differences were observed between LOC and NAT, and NAT and INT when compared using age. No meaningful differences were observed between NAT to INT competitions when compared using weight classes. The CV was not different across competition level (CV = 17.4-22.9%) categories. Several internal (athlete) and external (environmental) factors are likely to explain these findings. Therefore, factors such as training experience, performance variability, body composition, anthropometric characteristics, and competition pressure that may influence strength performance should also be considered in both training phases and during competition. Collectively, the results offer novel information regarding the difference in strength performance between novice, subelite, and elite strength athletes. Strength and conditioning professionals should consider these factors when working with various athletes where maximal strength is an important determinant of success.

Perceptions of Parenting Practices and Psychological Variables of Elite and Sub-Elite Youth Athletes

Drawing from the model of parental involvement in sport, the overall purpose was to examine the associations of perceptions of parenting practices (encouragement, reinforcement, instruction, and role modeling) and athletes’ psychological variables (self-efficacy, social self-efficacy, self-regulation, and intrinsic motivation) of elite and sub-elite youth athletes. Participants were elite (n = 210) and sub-elite (n = 635) athletes aged between 14 and 18 years (Mage = 16.58, SD = 1.33). Structural equation modeling analysis revealed that young elite athletes’ perceptions of sport-related parenting practices are associated with their psychological skills and performance level in sport. Specifically, in comparison with their sub-elite peers, perceptions of parental encouragement had a significantly different strong effect on intrinsic motivation. Moreover, perceptions of parental modeling revealed different effects on performance level, as well as on intrinsic motivation, and self-regulation. These perceptions of parenting practices may promote a positive learning environment, resulting in an increased likelihood of achieving a high level of sport performance in comparison with their sub-elite peers.

Changes in mechanical power output in rowing by varying stroke rate and gearing

Each stretch-shortening-cycle (SSC) in elite sports (e.g. jumping, cycling), is characterised by utilising optimal movement-parameters (e.g. muscle shortening velocity), for maximum power (jump height, cycle velocity). It is however unclear if relevant SSC movement-parameters in rowing, such as stroke rate and gearing, have to be maximised to obtain maximum power output or if an optimum relation emerges. Thus, we measured rowing-power (Prow), leg-power (Pleg) and work-per-stroke (WPS) at of varying stroke rates (20–45 spm), gearings (lever-changes 0.87–0.90 m) and drag factors (100–180 Ws3/m3) during rowing. Experienced sub-elite young athletes performed sprint-series on (single scull, n = 69, 20 ± 2 years, 186 ± 7 cm, 84 ± 9 kg) and off the water (rowing-ergometer, n = 30, 19 ± 3 years, 185 ± 11 cm, 77 ± 19 kg). Prow increased with stroke rate for ergometer-test (r = 0.97, p < 0.001) and boat measurement (r = 0.98, p < 0.001) by 2.7%/stroke and 4.4%/stroke, respectively. Interestingly, stroke rate had a high impact on WPS (r = 0.79, p < 0.001) during boat measurement, compared to no (or specifically no high) impact on WPS (r = −0.10, p = 0.166) during ergometer-measurements. Drag factor (ergometer: r = 0.83, p < 0.001) and gearing (boat: r = 0.60, p < 0.001) yielded moderate to high correlations to Prow. These results indicate that no optimum stroke rate, gearing and drag factor exist for maximum power in rowing (sprint-measurement-range). Accordingly, the measurements yielded maximum power for maximum stroke rate, gearing, and drag factor.

Effects of Self-Talk Training on Competitive Anxiety, Self-Efficacy, Volitional Skills, and Performance: An Intervention Study with Junior Sub-Elite Athletes.

(1) Background: Self-talk (ST) is used to influence athletes’ thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Samples of squad and competitive athletes are underrepresented, although research has proven the positive effects of ST in the context of sports. Thus, the present study focused on the impact of ST on psychological and performance outcomes of junior sub-elite athletes. (2) Methods: N = 117 athletes (55 females, 62 males; M = 16.0 years) were randomly assigned to either one of two experimental groups or to a control group (n = 30). The experimental groups received an ST intervention for either one week (n = 36) or eight weeks (n = 38), and the control group received no ST training. The dependent variables (competitive anxiety, volitional skills, self-efficacy, and coaches’ performance ratings) were assessed three times before and after the intervention. It was expected that (a) an ST intervention would reduce the competitive anxiety and increase volitional skills, self-efficacy, and performance; and, (b) long-term training would lead to higher effects than short-term training. (3) Results: As expected, ST training led to (less) somatic state anxiety and (higher) state self-confidence, self-optimization, self-efficacy, and performance. Additionally, long-term training was more effective than short-term training. (4) Conclusions: Targeted ST interventions may help to improve junior athletes’ psychological states and performance.

The comparison of Imagery ability in elite, sub-elite and non-elite swimmers

The ability to generate and control mental images is present in all of us, but it differs from person to person. Therefore, it is important to understand that imagery ability can be changed through training and experimentation, it is not a fixed ability (Cumming &amp; Williams, 2012). The aim of this study is to compare imagery ability in elite, sub-elite and non-elite athletes in a sport which involves closed and continuous motor skills, such as swimming. 79 swimmers (male N = 37; female N = 42) at an average age of 17 took part in this study. In order to assess imagery ability, the Movement Imagery Questionnaire 3 was used, Portuguese version (Mendes et al., 2016). After analysis of the results, these show that in each and every imagery modality, the scores in the three groups differ significantly. In kinesthetic and external visual imagery the elite and sub-elite groups’ scores, although not statistically different from each other, are significantly higher than those of the non-elite group. In internal visual imagery, the differences between all the compared pairs of groups are statistically significant. The elite group got the highest scores, followed by the sub-elite group average scores and finally the non-elite group average scores. According to these results, the conclusion is that athletes with better performance show greater imagery ability and that apparently the external visual imagery proved to be the best intervention method among swimming athletes.